Moderation (mattaññutā) is a virtue that has been extolled across various philosophical and spiritual traditions—both East and West. In Greek philosophy, Aristotle also ruminated on this virtue. For Aristotle, moderation centers on finding a balance between excess and deficiency, which he called the “mean.” This mean is not an absolute or mathematical midpoint but varies according to individual circumstances, such as personal needs and context. Moderation requires acting in accordance with reason, choosing the appropriate response in any given situation.
Consider a man named Leo,
who is naturally confident and enjoys speaking up in meetings. If Leo speaks
too frequently and tends to dominate the conversation, he risks coming across
as arrogant or overbearing. On the other hand, if he holds back too much, he
may seem passive or unengaged, which represents a deficiency of confidence.
Aristotle’s idea would suggest that Leo find a “mean” that suits his role and
setting. By speaking up thoughtfully and allowing enough space for others, Leo
achieves a balanced confidence, one that respects both his insights and the
contributions of others.
Aristotle emphasized that
virtue is not achieved through isolated actions but through the consistent
practice of employing good reason to choose the right mean. He also linked
moderation to happiness, arguing that living in accordance with reason and moderation
leads to a fulfilled and virtuous life.[i]
Scholars have pointed out
some similarities between Aristotle’s mean and the Buddhist concept of the
middle way, especially as reflected in its emphasis on moderation.[ii] Prayudh Payutto remarked,
“At the very heart of Buddhism is the wisdom of moderation.”[iii] The Pali word for
moderation, mattāññutā, is a compound
consisting of the words mattā and ññutā. According to Payutto, the
individual who exercises moderation understands the following:
He knows the right amount in such areas as
consumption and spending; he knows moderation in speech, work and action, in
rest and in all manner of recreation. He does all things with an understanding
of their objectives and for the real benefits to be expected, by acting not
merely for his own satisfaction or to accomplish his own ends, but rather to
achieve a proper balance of supporting factors that will produce the beneficial
result as revealed to him by wisdom.[iv]
Similar to the other
virtues, moderation is intimately connected to the life of the Buddha.
Initially, as a young prince, Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha’s pre-enlightened
name) lived a life of opulence and privilege. He was shielded from the
suffering of the world and indulged in all the pleasures life had to offer.
However, when he ventured outside his palace walls, he encountered the harsh
realities of life: sickness, old age, death, and suffering. This experience
profoundly shook him and led him to renounce his worldly life in search of the
meaning of existence.
In his quest for spiritual enlightenment,
the Buddha initially adopted an extreme ascetic lifestyle, subjecting himself
to severe self-discipline and deprivation. He believed that through extreme
austerity, he could conquer suffering. However, this approach proved fruitless,
leaving him weak and emaciated. Realizing the limitations of both extremes, the
Buddha discovered the Middle Way, a path that avoids both indulgence and
self-denial. This middle path emphasizes moderation, balance, and the avoidance
of extremes in all aspects of life. In finding the middle ground between luxury
and extreme asceticism, the Buddha was able to discover the truths that helped
him to achieve enlightenment and attain nibbāna.
Moderation serves as the
antidote for the greed that is detrimental to one’s quest for liberation. There is a plethora of texts in the Buddhist
canon that exhorts the individual to exercise self-discipline and restraint in
behavior, resisting temptation and indulgence in the senses. For example, the Dhammapada advises individuals “not to speak evil, not to injure, to
exercise restraint through the observance of the (almsman’s) code of conduct,
to be moderate in diet, and to occupy oneself with higher mental states—this is
the ordinance of the Enlightened Ones.”[v] Moderation appears most
frequently as advise regarding food consumption.[vi] Before taking their meals,
Buddhist monks and nuns often engage in a reflective practice, reciting a verse
that emphasizes moderation:
Wisely reflecting, we take alms food, not for
the purpose of fun, not for indulgence or the fascination of taste, but simply
for the maintenance of the body, for the continuance of existence, for the
cessation of painful feeling, for living the higher life. Through this eating,
we subdue old painful feelings of hunger and prevent new painful feelings (of
overeating) from arising. Thus do we live unhindered, blameless, and in
comfort.[vii]
The lack of moderation in diet
can lead to lasting consequences. The Aggañña
Sutta tells a fanciful tale of the beginning of the
world where as (pre)human beings went through moral degeneration, filling their
hearts with greed, hatred, and envy, human lives became less and less joyful.[viii] In the beginning, the
beings were luminous and weightless creatures floating about space in pure
delight. However, as time passed, on earth, there appeared a sweet and savory
substance that piqued the curiosity and interest of the beings. They not only ate
the substance, but due to greed seeping in, they ate it voraciously which led
to its eventual depletion. In the meanwhile, because they kept on feeding
endlessly on the earth substance, the weightless beings eventually would not
only become coarse individuals with a particular shape but also lose their
radiance. The story then goes on to tell how the natural world and human
society continued to evolve in unwholesome manners as a result of the depraved
actions of humanity.
This narrative vividly
illustrates the causal relationship between human virtue and the state of nature.
The absence of moderation, as exemplified in the story, results in significant
harm to both the natural environment and individual well-being. Although
Buddhism doesn’t demand abject poverty from its followers, the Buddha indeed
taught that over dependence on material things is a hindrance to
self-transformation. Monks were asked to have as their possessions not more
than a robe and a bowl, enough food for a day, simple lodgings, and medicine.[ix] On the other hand, such
things as gold and silver, high beds, garlands, and other luxury items were to
be avoided.[x]
For the Buddha, a life that led to true happiness was not one controlled by
sense desires, but rather a life of simplicity guided by wisdom and moral
virtues.
In the Pali Canon,
moderation is also applied to speech.[xi] As the Dhammapada
states, “The monk who controls his speech, who speaks wisely with a composed
mind, who explains the meaning and text of the Dhamma—sweet are the words of
that monk.”[xii]
Particular care must be taken when imparting the Dhamma to others. The Buddha
cautioned, “Monks, when the Dhamma and discipline are poorly expounded, the
giver should exercise moderation, not the recipient.”[xiii] This suggests that when
teachings are misconstrued or inaccurately presented, the giver of offerings
should be discerning, as the recipient may lack the capacity to utilize them
wisely.
Conversely, “when the
Dhamma and discipline are well expounded, the recipient should exercise
moderation, not the giver.”[xiv] In this case, the
recipient, who possesses a clear understanding of the teachings, is responsible
for accepting and utilizing what has been given judiciously. This guidance
highlights the profound connection between moderation, wise discernment, and
the effective transmission and utilization of the Dhamma.
Moderation must be
exercised even in regard to things that are beneficial for there can be too
much of a good thing. In discussing about a patient that is difficult to care
for, the Buddha listed not observing “moderation in what is beneficial” as one
of the five negative qualities, which also include not disclosing symptoms to
the caretaker and not taking prescribed medicine.[xv] In another sutta, the
Buddha asserted that this quality contributes to the loss of one’s vitality.[xvi]
The lack of moderation is
also cited as one of the eight negative qualities that make a monk not
respected by others in his community.[xvii] Thus, the exercise of
moderation is needed in many aspects of daily life. The ability to observe
moderation in these everyday things is indicative of one’s understanding of the
Dhamma.
And how is a bhikkhu one who knows
moderation? Here, a bhikkhu knows moderation in accepting robes, alms food,
lodgings, and medicines and provisions for the sick. If a bhikkhu did not know
moderation in accepting robes . . . and provisions for the sick, he would not
be called ‘one who knows moderation.’ But because he knows moderation in
accepting robes, almsfood, lodgings, and medicines and provisions for the sick,
he is called ‘one who knows moderation.’ Thus he is one who knows the Dhamma,
one who knows the meaning, one who knows himself, and one who knows moderation.[xviii]
Although many of the
teachings cited here were directed at monks, the practice of moderation was
certainly not restricted to those leading a monastic life but to individuals
from all walks of life. King Ashoka (r. 268-232 BCE), a vigorous patron of
Buddhism during his reign of the Mauryan Empire, understood and applied the
notion of moderation to his leadership. Realizing the multireligious nature of
the society under his rule, the King Ashoka gave Edict XII, which stressed the
need for restraint when dealing with other faiths:
King Priyadarsi [Ashoka] honors men of all
faiths, members of religious orders and laymen alike, with gifts and various
marks of esteem. Yet he does not value either gifts or honors as much as growth
in the qualities essential to religion in men of all faiths. This growth may
take many forms, but its root is in guarding one’s speech to avoid extolling
one’s own faith and disparaging the faith of others improperly, or, when the
occasion is appropriate, immoderately. The faiths of others all deserve to be
honored for one reason or another. By honoring them, one exalts one’s own faith
and at the same time performs a service of faith to others…. Therefore, concord
alone is commendable, for through concord men may learn and respect the conception
of Dharma accepted by others. King Priyadarsi desires men of all faiths to know
each other’s doctrines and to acquire sound doctrines…. The objective of these
measures is the promotion of each man’s particular faith and the glorification
of the Dharma.[xix]
[i] Felix
Ayemere Airoboman, “The Virtue of Moderation and Environmental Ethics,” KIU
Journal of Humanities 4, no. 4 (2019): 69–70.
[ii] Cf.
Viktoria Lyssenko, “The Hard Task of Hitting the Mean: Aristotle’s Mean
(Mesotes) and Buddha’s Middle Path (Majjhima Patipad),” Acta Orientalia
Vilnensia 3 (2002): 81–92; Anne Muldoon, A Comparison of Aristotelian
and Buddhist Ethics and the Implications for a “Moral Way” for Young People
(Master’s thesis, University of Glasgow, 2008).
[iii] Prayudh Payutto, Buddhist Economics:
A Middle Way for the Marketplace,
http://pioneer.netserv.chula.ac.th/~sprapant/Buddhism/buddhist_econ.html#Wealth%20and%20Spiritual%20Development.
[iv] Prayudh
Payutto, A Constitution for Living: Buddhist Principles for a Fruitful and Harmonious
Life (Bangkok: Buddhadhamma Foundation, 1998), 15.
[v] Dp 185.
[vi] DN
3.213; Nd 483; Dp 185; Pug 25; Vbh 249, 360; Dhs 1348; DhA 2.238.
[vii] MN 1.10;
Nd 496.
[viii] DN 27.
Although the original intention of the Buddha in telling this story to the
Brahmins is to critique the caste system as falsely deemed to be divinely
ordained, the story obviously has valuable implications for human-nature
relationship as well.
[ix] MN 1.10.
[x] Cf.
Barend Jan Terwiel, Monks and Magic: Revisiting a Classic Study of Religious
Ceremonies in Thailand, 2nd ed. (Copenhagen: NIAS Press, 2012); Pragati
Sahni, Environmental Ethics in Buddhism: A Virtues Approach (New York:
Routledge, 2007), 128.
[xi] Dp 227.
[xii] Dp 363.
[xiii] AN
1.315.
[xiv] AN
1.315.
[xv] AN
5.123.
[xvi] AN
5.126.
[xvii] AN 8.4
[xviii] AN 4.68
[xix] Robert
A. F. Thurman, “The Edicts of Asoka,” in The Path of Compassion:
Contemporary Writings on Engaged Buddhism, ed. Fred Eppsteiner and Dennis
Maloney (Berkeley, Calif.: Buddhist Peace Fellowship, 1985), 69.
