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The contemporary era is marked by an escalating ecological crisis, driven undeniably by anthropogenic activities. This crisis, meticulously documented by a plethora of reputable scientific institutions and international organizations, presents an existential threat to the delicate ecological equilibrium that sustains life on Earth. The exigency of the situation necessitates an immediate and comprehensive response on a global scale.[1]
The most concerning facet of this crisis is its rapid acceleration. The rate of species extinction has reached an unprecedented nadir, with entire ecosystems teetering on the precipice of collapse. Global temperatures exhibit an alarming upward trajectory, fueled by burgeoning greenhouse gas emissions. These alterations are triggering a cascade of deleterious consequences, including the increased frequency and severity of extreme weather events, rising sea levels, and a disruption of the intricate web of life.[2]
The ramifications of inaction are undeniably catastrophic. Climate change jeopardizes global food security, displacing populations as droughts and floods become more commonplace and intense. Unmitigated pollution by chemicals and waste products disrupts natural ecosystems and directly threatens human health. Biodiversity loss weakens the natural world's capacity to regulate climate and provide essential resources.[3] These issues have the potential to destabilize societies and economies across the globe.
However, amidst this bleak landscape, a flicker of hope persists. Public awareness of the ecological crisis has increased in recent years. This burgeoning awareness has translated into some positive developments. Political will exhibits nascent signs of strengthening, with nations establishing more ambitious climate targets.[4] Technological advancements are rendering renewable energy sources progressively more accessible and cost-effective.[5] Fueled by a sense of urgency and a yearning for a sustainable future, youth movements are demanding decisive action from world leaders.[6]
These developments, however, are unquestionably insufficient. Transforming political pronouncements into concrete actions necessitates a paramount sense of urgency that transcends mere rhetoric. A globally coordinated effort, prioritizing ecological sustainability, is imperative. This translates to robust investments in renewable energy sources, the promotion of sustainable practices in agriculture and industry, and the implementation of environmentally conscious policies at every level of governance. It also necessitates holding both corporations and governments accountable for their ecological footprint.
Religion and Ecology
The ecological crisis facing humanity demands collective efforts and transformative changes across all sectors of society.[7] The medieval historian Lynn White Jr. emphasized that human ecology is deeply conditioned by beliefs about our nature and destiny, which are fundamentally informed by religion.[8] Thus, religious traditions, with their profound moral teachings, ethical frameworks, and spiritual practices, have a unique and essential role to play in addressing this crisis. They provide moral and ethical guidelines that emphasize values such as compassion, justice, simple living, moderation, and respect for life. These teachings inspire individuals and communities to consider the broader implications of their actions on the environment and on the well-being of the human community in the present and future. In other words, religious teachings can contribute to the formation of an ecological conscience among religious adherents and beyond.[9]
According to Hans Küng, the authoritative nature of religious teachings can impel followers to adhere to environmental norms unconditionally, even when they conflict with personal interests.[10] Indeed, time and again, it has been shown that religion can provide tremendous motivation for what individuals say and do.[11] In a world where the vast majority of the people still adhere to a religious tradition, Muslim scholar Seyyed Hossein Nasr pointed out that religious ethics remain the most practical vehicle for solving the ecological crisis, particularly in societies where religious beliefs are deeply ingraine.[12] In reality, many religious traditions through their teachings, can foster a spiritual connection to nature, recognizing the sacredness and intrinsic value of the natural world. This connection encourages reverence for the Earth and its ecosystems, promoting practices that safeguard biodiversity, clean air, water sources, and fertile soils. In this regard, religion can do what few disciplines are able to do.[13]
In addition to spiritual connections, religious teachings often advocate for justice and equity, addressing environmental issues through the lens of social and intergenerational justice. Many environmental challenges disproportionately affect marginalized communities who often lack the resources and political power to mitigate their impacts.[14] Religious communities can amplify the voices of these communities, advocate for policies that promote environmental justice, and work towards equitable access to clean air, water, and land.[15]
Because of the wide reach of religion, religious institutions can also serve as centers of education and awareness, teaching their followers not only theological aspects of environmental safeguarding but can also integrate topics about environmental issues, ecological principles, and the importance of sustainability. They can provide platforms for dialogue, reflection, and collective action, mobilizing communities to participate in environmental initiatives, such as tree planting campaigns, waste reduction programs, or advocacy for renewable energy.
These efforts can be carried out within the religious tradition itself or in collaboration with groups from other faiths as a form of interreligious dialogue. In the face of global environmental challenges, interfaith collaboration has emerged as a powerful force for collective action.[16] Religious leaders and communities from diverse traditions come together to share resources, best practices, and strategies for environmental stewardship. This collaboration transcends religious boundaries, fostering solidarity and cooperation in addressing shared ecological concerns on a global scale.[17]
Buddhism and the Ecological Crisis
This book explores the contributions of Theravada Buddhism to addressing ecological issues. Theravada Buddhism, practiced by the majority in countries like Sri Lanka, Thailand, Myanmar, Laos, and Cambodia, also appeals to many outside this region, influencing their thoughts and actions. As people seek answers to the ecological crisis, many turn to Buddhism for its teachings that promote environmental flourishing. A survey of the literature on Buddhist environmentalism reveals a whole gamut of ideas articulated to demonstrate the conduciveness of Buddhism to ecological concerns. These points range from citing the Buddha as an exemplar in environmental safeguarding to citing particular Buddhist principles and teachings as demonstrative of the relevance of Buddhism to ecological well-being.
In the person of the Buddha, writers often highlight his life of simplicity, compassion, and mindfulness, which embodied a profound respect for the natural world. They also point out that the most significant events in the Buddha's life were closely connected with natural settings, highlighting his deep association with and reverence for the natural world. According to Buddhist tradition, Siddhartha Gautama was born under a sal tree in Lumbini Garden, establishing a connection with nature from the very beginning. One of the most pivotal events in his life was his enlightenment, which occurred while he was meditating under the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya. This tree became a symbol of wisdom and spiritual awakening.
Throughout his life, the Buddha often delivered his teachings in natural settings such as forests, groves, and gardens, including the Deer Park in Sarnath where he gave his first sermon. He frequently retreated to forests for meditation, finding the solitude and tranquility necessary for deep contemplation and spiritual practice. The Buddha attained parinibbāna (final nibbāna) in a grove of sal trees in Kushinagar, spending his final moments surrounded by the tranquility of the forest. Various stories from the Buddha's life illustrate his encounters with nature and animals, highlighting his compassion and respect for all living beings. For example, there are accounts of him intervening to save animals and advocating for the protection of forests. These events, according to these scholars, underscore the integral role that nature played in his spiritual journey and teachings, reflecting his environmental awareness and reverence for life in all its forms.
Besides the Buddha’s own life, proponents of Buddhist environmentalism assert that his teachings also demonstrate their ecologically friendly qualities. They often emphasize the principle of paticcasamuppāda to demonstrate the interdependent nature of all phenomena, meaning that all elements of the universe are connected. Actions affecting the natural world have ripple effects on ecosystems, climate patterns, and biodiversity. This understanding fosters a profound sense of responsibility and stewardship towards the environment, as harming nature ultimately harms ourselves and other beings. Recognizing the interconnectedness of life encourages Buddhists to act in ways that support environmental health and sustainability.
Another fundamental principle often highlighted is compassion, or karuna, and the practice of non-harming, or ahimsā. Compassion is a cornerstone of Buddhist ethics, advocating kindness and empathy towards all sentient beings, including animals, plants, and the environment. The principle of non-harming guides Buddhists to avoid actions that cause suffering or harm to any living being. In the context of environmental safeguarding, compassion motivates Buddhists to adopt sustainable practices that minimize ecological impact. They strive to reduce pollution, conserve natural resources, and protect biodiversity, viewing these actions as expressions of compassion towards the Earth and its inhabitants.
The concept of kamma is also frequently cited to demonstrate Buddhism's environmental friendliness. Kamma, the law of cause and effect, underscores the ethical dimension of Buddhist teachings. Actions rooted in greed, ignorance, or disregard for life contribute to negative kamma, while virtuous actions that promote well-being and harmony generate positive kamma. Environmental degradation, such as deforestation or pollution, creates negative kamma due to its harmful impact on ecosystems and future generations. Conversely, actions that support environmental sustainability, such as recycling, reducing consumption, and advocating for conservation, are considered virtuous and generate positive kamma. This ethical framework encourages Buddhists to align their behavior with principles of ecological responsibility, striving to leave a positive imprint on the environment through mindful and ethical conduct.
Mindfulness, or sati, is another key aspect of Buddhism that supports environmental stewardship. Mindfulness involves being present and aware of one's thoughts, actions, and their consequences. Applied to environmental care, mindfulness encourages individuals to consider the ecological impact of their choices and behaviors. By practicing mindfulness, Buddhists strive to live in harmony with the natural world, making choices that minimize environmental harm and promote sustainability. This includes mindful consumption habits, such as reducing waste, conserving energy and water, and supporting eco-friendly practices. Mindfulness also fosters a deeper appreciation for the interconnectedness of all life, motivating Buddhists to protect ecosystems and natural resources for future generations.
Finally, Buddhism emphasizes reverence for all forms of life and views humans as stewards of the Earth. This perspective recognizes the intrinsic value of nature and promotes a sense of responsibility towards preserving its integrity. Buddhists believe that protecting natural habitats and biodiversity is essential for maintaining the balance and well-being of the planet. Through acts of stewardship, such as sustainable farming practices, habitat restoration, and advocating for environmental policies, Buddhists aim to uphold the sanctity of life in all its forms. By nurturing and respecting the environment, they honor the interconnected web of life and contribute to a sustainable future for all beings.
Here, I have no intention to affirm or refute these claims either in terms of their interpretation of Buddhist teachings or relevance to ecological concerns. I only wish to present them here in a very cursory manner in order to show that there is indeed deep interest in using Buddhism and the Buddha himself as a resource to support an environmentalism. I sympathize wholeheartedly with this effort since this book represents an additional endeavor in this regard. Next, I present the approach that I will use for this book. The approach can be simply summarized in the following statements:
(1) Buddhist teachings represent a form of religious humanism, i.e. Buddhist humanism.
(2) Buddhist humanism in the environmental context can be called “Buddhist environmental humanism.”
(3) Buddhist environmental humanism comprises two integrally interrelated dimensions – relational and developmental. The relational dimension represents the vision or the ideals of human-nature relationship, while the developmental dimension represents the process of self-cultivation necessary to realize this vision.
Thus, this book sets out to identify and explicate on the Buddhist approach to environmental safeguarding. This approach is called “Buddhist environmental humanism.”
[1] IPCC, "Climate Change: A Threat to Human Wellbeing and Health of the Planet. Taking Action Now Can Secure Our Future," February 28, 2022, https://www.ipcc.ch/2022/02/28/pr-wgii-ar6/
[2] UN, "UN Report: Nature’s Dangerous Decline ‘Unprecedented’; Species Extinction Rates ‘Accelerating’," May 6, 2019, https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2019/05/nature-decline-unprecedented-report/
[3] M.G. Muluneh, "Impact of Climate Change on Biodiversity and Food Security: A Global Perspective—A Review Article," Agriculture & Food Security 10, No. 36 (2021), https://doi.org/10.1186/s40066-021-00318-5.
[4] Federica Di Sario, "EU Heavyweights Urge ‘Ambitious’ 2040 Climate Targets — Breaking Silence," Politico, January 25, 2024, https://www.politico.eu/article/eu-heavyweights-urge-ambitious-2040-climate-targets-breaking-silence-carbon-emission-cuts/.
[5] Max Roser, "Why Did Renewables Become So Cheap So Fast?" Our World in Data, December 1, 2020, https://ourworldindata.org/cheap-renewables-growth.
[6] Muhammad Hassan Dajana and Syeda Hamna Shujat, "How Today's Youth Are Taking the Lead in Global Climate Action," World Economic Forum, July 12, 2023, https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2023/07/empowering-tomorrows-climate-leaders-how-youth-influence-climate-action/.
[7] Anthony Le Duc, “Ecological Concerns,” in Missionary Discipleship in Glocal Contexts, eds. Lazar T. Stanislaus and vanThanh Nguyen (Siegburg: Franz Schmitt Verlag, 2018), 91. (91-117)
[8] Lynn White Jr., “The Historical Roots of Our Ecologic Crisis,” Science 155, no. 3767 (1967): 1205.
[9] Anthony Le Duc, “Formation of an Ecological Conscience: A Christian Imperative,” Verbum SVD 64, No. 2 (2023): 199-214.
[10] Hans Küng, Global Responsibility: In Search of a New World Ethic (Eugene, OR: Wipf &Stock publishers, 2004), 52
[11] Pan-Chiu Lai, “Interreligious Dialogue and Environmental Ethics,” Studies in Interreligious Dialogue 21, No. 1 (2011), 5–19, esp. 6
[12] Seyyed H. Nasr, “Religion and the Environmental Crisis,” in The Essential Seyyed Hossein Nasr, ed. W.C. Chittick (Bloomington: World Wisdom Inc., 2007), 31.
[13] Md. Abu Sayem, Religion and Ecological Crisis: Christian and Muslim Perspectives from John B. Cobb and Seyyed Hossein Nasr (London: Routledge, 2023), 2.
[14] Akilah Davitt, "Mapping Solutions to Fighting Environmental Injustice: Building Awareness for Marginalized Communities," Sustainable Earth, August 16, 2022, https://sustainable-earth.org/environmental-injustice-marginalized-communities/.
[15] Anthony Le Duc, “Religious Prophetic Voice and Environmental Well-Being,” October 1, 2023, https://ssrn.com/abstract=4589393, http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4589393
[16] Anthony Le Duc, "Interreligious Dialogue to Promote Environmental Flourishing: An Ongoing Imperative," June 25, 2023, https://ssrn.com/abstract=4490844 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4490844.
[17] Le Duc, “Interreligious Dialogue to Promote Environmental Flourishing.”
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