5. Buddhist Humanistic
Environmental Virtues
Loving kindness (mettā) and compassion (karunā)
Human solidarity with nature in the common experience of suffering can be demonstrated by the virtues of loving kindness (mettā) and compassion (karunā). Loving kindness (mettā) and compassion (karunā) are two of the four sublime abodes (brahma-vihāra) along with sympathetic joy and equanimity. Loving kindness is the wish that all sentient beings, without exception, be happy while compassion is the genuine desire to alleviate the sufferings of others which one is able to feel. The text that one often encounters when discussing about loving kindness is from the Suttras which states: “I dwell pervading one quarter with a mind imbued with loving-kindness, likewise the second quarter, the third quarter, and the fourth quarter. Thus above, below, across, and everywhere, and to all as to myself, I dwell pervading the entire world with a mind imbued with loving-kindness, vast, exalted, measureless, without enmity, without ill will” (A.I.183). Similarly, in the Karaniya Mettā Sutta of the Suttanipata (S.I.8), the Buddha exhorts the practitioner to exercise mettā to others no matter whether they are weak or strong, big or small, seen or unseen, near or far away, etc. Monks are enjoined also to have loving kindness even in the face of challenges and difficulties (M.I.123).
Along with loving kindness, the person who exhibits compassion towards others and has their wellbeing in mind ultimately makes progress in his own spiritual state. The stereotypical verse cited above about loving kindness also has its equivalent for compassion in the suttas. If a person practices compassion, “relishes it, desires it, and finds satisfaction in it. If he is firm in it, focused on it, often dwells in it, and has not lost it when he dies, he is reborn in companionship with the devas of streaming radiance” (A.II.129). Compassion is exemplified by the Buddha himself who is said to be the “one person who arises in the world…out of compassion for the world” (A.I.23) and is “practicing simply out of sympathy and compassion for living beings” (A.II.177). Compassion is exhibited in multiple forms, for example giving material goods or by teaching the Dhamma (A.I.93). Indeed, the latter form of exhibiting compassion characterizes the Buddha who desired to show the people the path to liberation.
As one can see, loving kindness and compassion when practiced diligently by the Buddhist person has direct impact on the environment. For each of these as well as the other sublime virtues, the Buddha exhorted the monks to assiduously train themselves so that they are able to carry out these virtues beyond their immediate neighbors, extending to the entire world (Sahni 2007, 120). Simon P. James points out that someone who is truly compassionate extends his/her compassion to human as well as non-human beings. If one is only compassionate towards human beings, then one would not be considered a truly compassionate person. Thus, a person’s dealings with non-human sentient beings, i.e., animals would reflect on his/her level of virtuousness (2007, 457).
One may ask the question, if loving kindness and compassion are only extended to human beings and non-human sentient beings, then what good is that when it comes to plants and other non-sentient entities? Certainly, a person would hardly be considered compassionate if he/she goes about destroying rainforests which serves as the habitat for countless animal creatures big and small. In the same manner, a person would hardly be considered to be suffusing the world with loving kindness if he/she chooses to fill the air and rivers with dangerous chemicals that harm living things. Thus, the implication for loving kindness and compassion in the context of the environment is that it must respond to all dimensions of life that ultimately holds ramifications for different aspects of the ecology. Buddhism indeed encourages people to be kind and compassionate in a thoroughgoing manner and not just on a selective basis.
Gentleness (maddava)
Closely related to loving kindness and compassion is the virtue of gentleness. Gentleness can be seen as the positive derivative of the non-violence (ahimsā) precept in Buddhism. With respect to this First Precept in Buddhism, all actions which intentionally harm other sentient beings are considered morally wrong. In the Dhammapada one is reminded that just as a person recoils at the thought of pain and treasures his own life, so do other sentient beings. Thus, suffering should not be inflicted on others (Dp.129-130). Buddhism not only urges people to be gentle in their daily dealings with other people and animals, but it also encourages people to avoid means of livelihood that brings about intentional harm to others. Thus, making a living by trading weapons, trading human beings, trading flesh, trading spirits and trading poison ought to be avoided, according to the Buddha (A.V.177). In addition, earning a living as pig and sheep butchers, hunters, thieves and murderers resulted in terrible consequences to the individual that no water ablution can eliminate (The.242-3). While the non-violence virtue directly speaks about how one treats fellow human beings and animals, it would be peculiar if a person acted with great respect towards all sentient beings, but made a complete turn-about when it came to plants which in Buddhism is considered to be non-sentient or at best, border-line sentient beings. One would expect that those who display gentleness towards people and animals would also extend this demeanor towards plants and even non-living things like a historic boulder or a cave. When gentleness permeates a person’s veins, it is displayed in his/her actions which affect all the things around him/her. Environmental wellbeing then greatly depends on a human community that knows how to refrain from doing violence to its members and to others. By acting with gentleness towards others, environmentally negative events such as the extinction of animal species due to excessive hunting or the loss of plant species due to destruction of forests can be prevented.
Moderation and contentment
Moderation and contentment (saṅtuṭṭhī) serve as the antidote for the greed that is detrimental to one’s quest for liberation. There is a plethora of texts in the Buddhist canon that exhorts the individual to exercise self-discipline and restraint in behavior, resisting temptation and indulgence in the senses. The Aggañña Suttra of the Dīgha Nikāya (D.III.80-98) tells a fanciful tale of the beginning of the world where as (pre)human beings went through moral degeneration, filling their hearts with greed, hatred, and envy, human lives became less and less joyful. In the beginning, the beings were luminous and weightless creatures floating about space in pure delight. However, as time passed, on earth, there appeared a sweet and savory substance that piqued the curiosity and interest of the beings. They not only ate the substance, but due to greed seeping in, they ate it voraciously which led to its eventual depletion. In the meanwhile, due to endlessly feeding on the earth substance, the weightless beings eventually would not only become coarse individuals with a particular shape, but also lose their radiance. The story then goes on to tell how the natural world and human society continue to evolve in unwholesome manners as a result of the depraved actions of humanity.
This tale clearly shows that there is a causal connection between human virtuousness and the state of the natural world. The lack of moderation, thus, can be seen to be a cause for great detrimental effects not only to the surrounding environment, but also to one’s own wellbeing. While Buddhism does not advocate abject poverty, the Buddha indeed taught that over dependence on material things was a hindrance towards spiritual progress. Monks were asked to have as their possessions not more than a robe and a bowl, enough food for a day, simple lodgings and medicine. On the other hand, such things as gold and silver, high beds, garlands and other luxury items were to be avoided. For the Buddha, a life that led to true happiness was not one controlled by sense desires, but rather a life of simplicity guided by wisdom and moral virtues.
Moderation is a virtue when it goes hand in hand with contentment (Saṅtuṭṭhī), which Buddhism greatly advocates. In the Suttas, time and time again the Buddha remind the monks to be content with simple things and avoid desire of many things. In the Aṅguttara, the Buddha says: “Bhikkhus, I do not see even a single thing that so causes unarisen wholesome qualities to arise and arisen unwholesome qualities to decline as contentment. For one who is content, unarisen wholesome qualities arise and arisen unwholesome qualities decline” (A.I.13). In the same collection of discourses, the Buddha extolled the monk who is content with whatever robe, alms food, and lodging he receives as “diligent, clearly comprehending and ever mindful, is said to be standing in an ancient, primal noble lineage” (A.II.27-29). As new robes are received, the old ones are not tossed away but made use of as coverlets. Likewise, the old cover-sheets are turned into floor-sheets, the old floor-sheets become foot-towels, the old foottowels are used as dusters, and old dusters become floor-spreads (V.II.291). Thus, moderation is not only seen in how one obtains new things, but also demonstrated in how old things continue to be put to good use.
Contentment is opposed to non-contentment and craving (tanhā). G. P. Malalasekera interprets the Buddhist notion of tanhā in the following manner: “Tanhā is, rather what might be called thirst, the craving of the limited, individual living creature seeking to gratify itself in its separateness and to use the external world as a means to satisfy its self-centred needs. The evil in man’s life is man-made and, therefore, eradicable by man, without outside interference” (1964, 152). Craving leads to suffering, or unsatisfactoriness because one is never fulfilled by the thing that one has and continues to look for fulfillment in impermanent things, an endeavor that is ultimately done in vain. While human craving leads us to think that more material possessions and greater material wealth is desirous, Buddhism teaches us that contentment is the “greatest riches” (Dp.204) whereas destruction of all cravings means overcoming all suffering (Dp.21).
One can immediately see how moderation and contentment advocated by Buddhism would have profound effect on human-nature relationship and environmental wellbeing. By setting limits on one’s lifestyle, focusing on what one truly needs rather than what one likes or what one wants, consumerism, and subsequently commodity production, is reduced. This leads to less strain on natural resources and results in improved ecological equilibrium. Possessing moderation and contentment also means true appreciation of the thing that one already possesses and intends to use it in the most meaningful way possible. Oftentimes, people discard a perfectly good mobile phone or tablet that they have been using simply because there is a new model out on the market that supposedly will bring about more satisfaction to the consumer. This behavior reflects a notion of trying to achieve happiness through possessing things rather than the kind of happiness achieved through non-acquisition. According to Apichai Puntasen, true happiness (sukha) in Buddhist thinking is not based on hedonistic acquisition, but is achieved “from giving, from meditation, or from helping others to be relieved from pain” (2007, 185). It is also derived from being able to rid the mind of various defilements that prevents its liberation. Puntasen asserts that true happiness ought not to be equated with “pleasure, prosperity, gratification or even enjoyment,” but must be considered in terms of “wellness, peace and tranquility” (Ibid, 186).
Buddhism affirms that the feeling of discontentment with the thing that one already possesses is a sign that one will most likely feel the same towards other things that one desires but has yet to possess. Exercising moderation and having contentment with respect to the environment, is ultimately a reflection of a person’s sense of responsibility towards nature. It reflects one’s awareness of the limited natural resources available for human use. It also reflects one’s understanding that wanting more and owning more means placing unnecessary strains on nature. And it reflects one’s understanding that one’s behavior becomes the condition that gives rise to certain phenomena that take place in the world in accordance with the teaching of Dependent Origination. Thus, any spirituality that advocates simple living and contentment rather than constant striving for material possessions clearly reflects a sense of responsibility and is naturally beneficial towards environmental wellbeing. With the state of the natural environment as it is, there is a great need at this time for simplicity and contentment on the part of human beings. As Donald Swearer remarks, “One chooses less so that all may flourish more” (1998, 93).
Moderation and contentment (saṅtuṭṭhī) serve as the antidote for the greed that is detrimental to one’s quest for liberation. There is a plethora of texts in the Buddhist canon that exhorts the individual to exercise self-discipline and restraint in behavior, resisting temptation and indulgence in the senses. The Aggañña Suttra of the Dīgha Nikāya (D.III.80-98) tells a fanciful tale of the beginning of the world where as (pre)human beings went through moral degeneration, filling their hearts with greed, hatred, and envy, human lives became less and less joyful. In the beginning, the beings were luminous and weightless creatures floating about space in pure delight. However, as time passed, on earth, there appeared a sweet and savory substance that piqued the curiosity and interest of the beings. They not only ate the substance, but due to greed seeping in, they ate it voraciously which led to its eventual depletion. In the meanwhile, due to endlessly feeding on the earth substance, the weightless beings eventually would not only become coarse individuals with a particular shape, but also lose their radiance. The story then goes on to tell how the natural world and human society continue to evolve in unwholesome manners as a result of the depraved actions of humanity.
This tale clearly shows that there is a causal connection between human virtuousness and the state of the natural world. The lack of moderation, thus, can be seen to be a cause for great detrimental effects not only to the surrounding environment, but also to one’s own wellbeing. While Buddhism does not advocate abject poverty, the Buddha indeed taught that over dependence on material things was a hindrance towards spiritual progress. Monks were asked to have as their possessions not more than a robe and a bowl, enough food for a day, simple lodgings and medicine. On the other hand, such things as gold and silver, high beds, garlands and other luxury items were to be avoided. For the Buddha, a life that led to true happiness was not one controlled by sense desires, but rather a life of simplicity guided by wisdom and moral virtues.
Moderation is a virtue when it goes hand in hand with contentment (Saṅtuṭṭhī), which Buddhism greatly advocates. In the Suttas, time and time again the Buddha remind the monks to be content with simple things and avoid desire of many things. In the Aṅguttara, the Buddha says: “Bhikkhus, I do not see even a single thing that so causes unarisen wholesome qualities to arise and arisen unwholesome qualities to decline as contentment. For one who is content, unarisen wholesome qualities arise and arisen unwholesome qualities decline” (A.I.13). In the same collection of discourses, the Buddha extolled the monk who is content with whatever robe, alms food, and lodging he receives as “diligent, clearly comprehending and ever mindful, is said to be standing in an ancient, primal noble lineage” (A.II.27-29). As new robes are received, the old ones are not tossed away but made use of as coverlets. Likewise, the old cover-sheets are turned into floor-sheets, the old floor-sheets become foot-towels, the old foottowels are used as dusters, and old dusters become floor-spreads (V.II.291). Thus, moderation is not only seen in how one obtains new things, but also demonstrated in how old things continue to be put to good use.
Contentment is opposed to non-contentment and craving (tanhā). G. P. Malalasekera interprets the Buddhist notion of tanhā in the following manner: “Tanhā is, rather what might be called thirst, the craving of the limited, individual living creature seeking to gratify itself in its separateness and to use the external world as a means to satisfy its self-centred needs. The evil in man’s life is man-made and, therefore, eradicable by man, without outside interference” (1964, 152). Craving leads to suffering, or unsatisfactoriness because one is never fulfilled by the thing that one has and continues to look for fulfillment in impermanent things, an endeavor that is ultimately done in vain. While human craving leads us to think that more material possessions and greater material wealth is desirous, Buddhism teaches us that contentment is the “greatest riches” (Dp.204) whereas destruction of all cravings means overcoming all suffering (Dp.21).
One can immediately see how moderation and contentment advocated by Buddhism would have profound effect on human-nature relationship and environmental wellbeing. By setting limits on one’s lifestyle, focusing on what one truly needs rather than what one likes or what one wants, consumerism, and subsequently commodity production, is reduced. This leads to less strain on natural resources and results in improved ecological equilibrium. Possessing moderation and contentment also means true appreciation of the thing that one already possesses and intends to use it in the most meaningful way possible. Oftentimes, people discard a perfectly good mobile phone or tablet that they have been using simply because there is a new model out on the market that supposedly will bring about more satisfaction to the consumer. This behavior reflects a notion of trying to achieve happiness through possessing things rather than the kind of happiness achieved through non-acquisition. According to Apichai Puntasen, true happiness (sukha) in Buddhist thinking is not based on hedonistic acquisition, but is achieved “from giving, from meditation, or from helping others to be relieved from pain” (2007, 185). It is also derived from being able to rid the mind of various defilements that prevents its liberation. Puntasen asserts that true happiness ought not to be equated with “pleasure, prosperity, gratification or even enjoyment,” but must be considered in terms of “wellness, peace and tranquility” (Ibid, 186).
Buddhism affirms that the feeling of discontentment with the thing that one already possesses is a sign that one will most likely feel the same towards other things that one desires but has yet to possess. Exercising moderation and having contentment with respect to the environment, is ultimately a reflection of a person’s sense of responsibility towards nature. It reflects one’s awareness of the limited natural resources available for human use. It also reflects one’s understanding that wanting more and owning more means placing unnecessary strains on nature. And it reflects one’s understanding that one’s behavior becomes the condition that gives rise to certain phenomena that take place in the world in accordance with the teaching of Dependent Origination. Thus, any spirituality that advocates simple living and contentment rather than constant striving for material possessions clearly reflects a sense of responsibility and is naturally beneficial towards environmental wellbeing. With the state of the natural environment as it is, there is a great need at this time for simplicity and contentment on the part of human beings. As Donald Swearer remarks, “One chooses less so that all may flourish more” (1998, 93).
Generosity (cāga) and giving (dāna)
Generosity is the antidote for greed and attachment and is considered to be an essential quality of a superior person (sappurisa), alongside other important qualities of faith, morality, learning and wisdom (Bhikkhu Bodhi 1995). According to Bhikkhu Bodhi, generosity as a spirituality quality is important because “the goal of the path is the destruction of greed, hate and delusion, and the cultivation of generosity directly debilitates greed and hate, while facilitating that pliancy of mind that allows for the eradication of delusion” (Ibid). True generosity is the underlying impetus for the practice of dāna parami, the perfection of giving that brings about wholesome kamma essential to the path of enlightenment (Jootla 1995). Indeed, giving is an admirable act and Buddhism focuses a great deal on giving. However, the kind of giving that Buddhism is interested in is not just any act of giving, but those acts of giving that are motivated by the genuine internal disposition of generosity. Giving is so fundamental to Buddhism that the Buddha usually preached to newcomers by beginning with the topic of giving (V.I.15,18). Giving is also listed as the first of the ten perfections (pāramitā), which are necessary for anyone who aspires to travel the path towards arahantship. In the Aṅguttara Nikāya, the Buddha specified eight motivations for giving: to insult the recipient, from fear, to reciprocate, expecting a future gift in return, because giving is good, because of the sense of justice, because of gaining a good reputation, and to ornament and equip the mind (A.IV.236). Among these, the Buddha taught that the most superior reason for giving is with the intention that it will benefit the effort to attain nibbāna.
The object of giving may be both material and non-material things. Material things include food, clothes, and money, while non-material thing would be words of encouragement, and most important of all, the Dhamma itself. The gift of the Dhamma was given first by the Buddha, then subsequently by the monks. Lay people participate in giving the gift of Dhamma by supporting the Sangha which has the direct mission of imparting this gift to the general public with essential material things. Besides giving to the recluses and brahmins, people are also expected to give to the destitute, wayfarers, wanderers and beggars. Moreover, the gift of a good person is given out of faith, given respectfully, given in a timely manner, given unreservedly, and given without injuring himself or others (A.III.173). In all these acts of giving, the Buddha said that the giver “is joyful before giving;” “has a placid, confident mind in the act of giving;” and “is elated after giving” (A.III.336). This demeanor is to be maintained even when the act of giving involves great self sacrifice on the part of the giver. An illustration of this perfection in giving is cited by I.B. Horner when he selected the story of the hare in the Jātaka collection (J.308). In this story, a Sakka disguised as a famished brahmin approached the hare (in reality a Bodhisatta) asking for food. Because the hare had nothing in his house to offer the religious man, he decided to offer himself, inviting the religious to eat him, then jumping into the fire. At the moment of self sacrifice, the story recounts, “Then offering his whole body as a free gift he sprang up, and like a royal swan, alighting on a cluster of lotuses, in an ecstasy of joy he fell on the heap of live coals” (Francis and Neil 1897, 37). Fortunately, it was only Sakka’s test of the hare’s virtue and the coal was made cool so as not to do any harm to the hare. In fact, instead of feeling the burning heat from the coal, the hare felt that it was icy cold. This type of completely selfless act of sacrifice is also seen in the story of the guru who gives his life to feed the hungry tigress related in the previous section.
How does the virtue of generosity reflected in the perfection of giving promote ecological wellbeing and flourishing? As already mentioned, nature is of service to human beings, not only providing physical sustenance but also facilitating spiritual growth. There is no question that without nature, human beings cannot survive. Without the oxygen produced by plants, human beings would not be able to breathe. The processes taking place in nature is also extremely conducive to the spiritual progress of human beings when they meditate and reflect on them. The service that nature offers to human beings is constant and unceasing. The relationship of mutual service, by the very phrase, implies a reciprocal relationship and human beings must also put themselves at the service of nature. True service requires giving, and giving not just in a haphazard manner, but giving with a joyous and peaceful heart, giving out of true generosity.
The virtue of generosity responds to nature’s generosity towards human beings with their own mode of generosity. Human generosity reflects their appreciation of the Buddhist doctrine of kataññukatavedi in which one is conscious of the favor that one receives and has the mind to reciprocate such favor. This is the teaching of gratitude that we apply not only to other human beings but to any entity that acts on their behalf. The Phra Dharmakosajarn points to the Buddha as the embodiment of gratitude. After the Buddha achieved Enlightenment, he traveled to his homeland to pay gratitude to his father as well as to the surrounding environment. In addition, the Buddha was very grateful to the Bodhi tree under which he sat to meditate seven days before achieving his ultimate goal of Enlightenment (Phra Dharmakosajarn 2011, 16). The virtue of generosity also strengthens human-nature relationship because it is the opposite of the defilements of selfishness and attachment that are so detrimental not only to human wellbeing but also to the wellbeing of nature. It would not be too difficult to realize that much of the environmental devastation taking place is due to human attachment to material possessions and selfishly accumulating them, causing great strains on natural resources and upsetting the ecological equilibrium. The generosity that human beings display towards nature has to be in a way that is appropriate to the human status in the world, reflecting the degree of ethical and spiritual development that they have undergone. Human generosity may be displayed through reforestation projects in order to maintain suitable habitats for animals and insects. Human generosity may be demonstrated in reduction of the usage of chemicals that are harmful to the natural environment and the atmosphere. It may take place through financial donations to projects that promote environmental well-being, and organizations that publicize information about environmental destruction and climate change. Generosity can also take place through supporting the Sangha and particular religious leaders to give spiritual guidance on environmental issues.
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