The philosophy of . . . Buddhism. . . undoubtedly represents one of the most comprehensive and systematic forms of humanism. It is based on naturalistic metaphysics, with causal dependence as its central theme. Rejecting any form of transcendentalism, determinism, or fatalism, it emphasizes its ultimate faith in man and recognizes his power or potentiality in solving his problems through reliance primarily upon empirical knowledge, reason and scientific method applied with courage and vision. It believes in the freedom of man, not in a transcendental sphere, but here and now. The highest goal it offers is not other-worldly but this-worldly. (1977, 12)While there are striking similarities between Buddhist humanism and secular humanism, there are features in Buddhism that would make secular humanists uncomfortable such as the belief in transmigration, the existence of the realms of ghosts, spirits and heavenly beings. Buddhist monks, like the historical Buddha, also believe that they can develop through meditation the ability for retrocognition – the ability to see their own past lives as well as the past lives of other people. Buddhist monks also claim that they have the capacity for clairvoyance and telepathy which enhances their ability to apprehend the Law of Dependent Origination, or the principle of causal dependence. Moreover, in actual practice, the various offshoots of Buddhism have essentially turned the Buddha into a deity and bodhisattvas into saints, especially in the Mahayana tradition. In Southeast Asia, particularly, Thailand, Theravada Buddhism as practiced by the people is a combination of Early Buddhism, Brahmanism, and local animistic beliefs in spirits inhabiting trees, mountains, rivers, and even one’s own garden.
The more convincing basis for Buddhist humanism lies not in Buddhist metaphysical assumptions – matters which the historical Buddha was not always enthusiastic about addressing – but about its outlook on the human person and on the world. The Nan Tien Institute which belongs to the Mahayana tradition points to the very existence and events in the Buddha’s life as basis for what it calls “Humanistic Buddhism.” It says,
We know that the founder of Buddhism, Sakyamuni Buddha was born into this world; he cultivated his spiritual development, attained enlightenment, and shared with others in this world the profound truth he had realised. The human world was emphasised in everything he did. Why did the Buddha not achieve Buddhahood in one of the other five realms? Why did he not attain enlightenment in one of the other ten dharma worlds? Why did he, instead, attain complete enlightenment as a human? There can only be one reason; the Buddha wanted the teachings of Buddhism to be relevant to the human world. The Buddha's very life as a human being has give us all an inspiration and a model for the spiritual path and for making our own lives a spiritual practice.[1]Humanistic Buddhism as advocated by the Nan Tien Institute tries to overcome the perception that Buddhism is removed from humanity and the world, preoccupies itself with isolation, retreat to forests, and individual happiness. Instead, “Humanistic Buddhism encompasses all of the Buddhist teachings from the time of the Buddha to the present – whether they are derived from the three traditions. The goal of Humanistic Buddhism is the bodhisattva way; to be an energetic, enlightened and endearing person who strives to help all sentient beings liberate themselves...[as] well as transforming our planet into a pureland of peace and bliss.”[2] In other words, Buddhist humanism holds the conviction which is well stated by Daisaku Ikeda, “The Buddha is an ordinary human being; ordinary human beings are the Buddha” (1999, 384). This is the conviction that any individual can become a buddha – a fully realized, enlightened person imbued with the noblest qualities of humanhood.Indeed, humanistic Buddhism does not deny that the goal is to achieve personal emancipation by becoming a ‘buddha’ with the small ‘b.’ However, this goal does not have to conflict with the interest and wellbeing of others. On the contrary, they are integrally tied to the good of others. Thus, one cannot hope to be reborn with a better human status in the next life, or being reborn in one of the various heavenly realms, or even entering nibbāna, escaping completely from saṃsāra – the cycle of birth, death and rebirth – without leading a life that demonstrates concern for others as well. The Buddhist cosmogony comprises six realms ranging in various degrees of suffering. While beings can progress from one realm to another over numerous lifetimes, it is only in the human form that individuals can achieve liberation from the cycle of rebirth. The Buddha himself never claimed to be anything more than a human being who managed to achieve enlightenment purely by human intelligence without any assistance from the divine or transcendent. He was confident through his own experience that humans had the potentiality to attain buddhahood if they worked hard enough.
The work involved for any individual striving for spiritual progress necessarily involved eliminating the spiritual poisons or unwholesome roots that cause them to experience suffering and become trapped in saṃsāra. As opposed to the wholesome roots (mula) – the fundamental conditions in the mind that determine the moral quality – the unwholesome roots include greed (rāga), hatred (dosa), and delusion (moha). These poisons exist within each person in various degrees and manifest themselves in thoughts and actions in various expressions. Greed is the mental state in which one is unceasingly plagued by an insatiable feeling of need and want in his/her life. Even after the desire has been fulfilled, the feeling of satisfaction does not last and the feeling of lack inevitably returns. Greed can come in many forms including the desire to hoard material things while others go without or the need to achieve a high social status through material possessions. Hatred comprises a whole range of negative emotions such as disappointment, aversion, anxiety and dejection, and feelings of dissatisfaction towards oneself and others. They can manifest themselves in subtle words to belittle another person or outright violence against individuals and groups. Hate can also be seen in one’s aversion to certain persons or things. The third poison is delusion, which is integrally tied to ignorance (avijjā). A person afflicted with this poison suffers confusion and lack of directions in life. This condition can easily lead to adopting false views on simple matters that concern one’s everyday life to more serious positions of ideological dogmatism and fanaticism. Nyanatiloka Mahathera, one of the earliest westerners in modern times to become a Bhikkhu, remarked, “For all evil things, and all evil destiny, are really rooted in greed, hate and ignorance; and of these three things ignorance or delusion (moha, avijja) is the chief root and the primary cause of all evil and misery in the world. If there is no more ignorance, there will be no more greed and hatred, no more rebirth, no more suffering” (Quoted by O’Brien 2018).
In order to eliminate the unwholesome roots from one’s life and to replace them with the wholesome roots of wisdom ((paññā), generosity (dāna), and loving kindness (mettā), the Buddha proposed practicing the Noble Eightfold Path. This path combines moral virtues (sīla) with development of concentration (samādhi) and wisdom or insight (paññā). According to the Buddha, all the Buddhas of the past traveled this path towards enlightenment and liberation from the cycle of birth, aging and death (S.II.12). The eight elements are often listed as follows:
1. Right view (Sammā diṭṭhi)
2. Right thought (Sammā sankappa)
3. Right speech (Sammā vācā)
4. Right action (Sammā kammanta)
5. Right living (Sammā ājīva)
6. Right effort (Sammā vāyāma)
7. Right mindfulness (Sammā sati)
8. Right concentration (Sammā samādhi)
The three factors of right speech, right action, and right living make up the Sīla group while the Samadhi group includes right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. The Pañña group consists of right view and right thought. The diligent training and practice of these three stages results in higher moral discipline, higher consciousness, and higher wisdom, which is the condition that directly opposes the ignorance causing human suffering. To achieve the ultimate goal of wisdom, one must go through the training of the moral discipline, which serves as the foundation for training of concentration, which in turn serves as the foundation for training of higher wisdom. While the elements are listed in a sequential order, the process of training is not linear like a ladder; rather the three aspects of training are always present along the path, with each continuing to reinforce the other and in turn becomes further developed until perfection is achieved (Bhikkhu Bodhi 1998a, 13). Therefore, this path is only linear in the metaphorical sense. If the training proves to be successful, the individual is imbued with all the factors in full measures. The successful completion of this path also results in the attainment of nibbāna, a state where all suffering associated with mundane existence has effectively ceased. While the presentation here is simple, the effort towards this spiritual summit is extremely strenuous, painstaking and gradual. One should not hope to make a quantum leap from one state to another by any means (Keown 2001, 102). According to the Buddha, intellectual as well as moral progress as prescribed by the Noble Eightfold Path is compulsory for the attainment of enlightenment or emancipation from the cycle of rebirth. He was extremely critical of any teachings that suggested full enlightenment could be achieved through an alternative route (D.II.151).
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