6. Conclusion: Buddhist Environmental Humanism as a Spirituality
As expressed in the previous sections, Buddhist humanism is based on the conviction that humanity has the capacity to achieve personal transformation through self-cultivation. This is done primarily through the use of human reasoning combined with hard work and discipline. The outcome of this painstaking process is not only spiritual advancement for oneself but also improved human-human and human-nature relationships. Thus, when human beings become better versions of themselves, personal, communal and environmental problems plaguing humanity get resolved. Buddhist environmental humanism therefore is simply a specific aspect of the overall Buddhist humanistic project of cultivating virtues on behalf of self and others.
What I would like to stress in regard to Buddhist environmental humanism, indeed Buddhist humanism as a whole, is that it is not simply an ‘ethics’ but a ‘spirituality.’ Indeed, one might find term ‘spirituality’ applied to Buddhism to be an oxymoron because Buddhism denies the existence of a ‘spirit’ or a ‘self.’ Indeed, many people have pointed out that human perfection in the Buddhist worldview can be achieved without any assistance or intervention from the divine. However, ‘spirituality’ in its modern academic usage does not necessarily connote the presence of a ‘spirit’ or a ‘soul’ as understood in Western Christianity, but can also refer to a more general state or experience of inner wellbeing and transformation. Because of this, spirituality as a discipline can be applied to a variety of religious systems as well as non-religious contexts. Prominent Buddhists themselves have also made references to aspects of Buddhism in terms of the field of spirituality. Bhikkhu Bodhi (2006), for example refers to the Buddha as a ‘spiritual leader.’ In another essay, the scholar monk characterized the five Buddhist qualities of faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration and wisdom as ‘spiritual qualities’ (Bhikkhu Bodhi 1998b). The late Thai monk Buddhadasa Bhikkhu spoke of the human moral degeneration as a ‘spiritual disease’ that must be cured by the Dhamma (Buddhadasa 1997). Indeed, he remarked that climate change and other imbalances in nature being experienced at this time is a result of an internal human moral degeneration that affects the external dimension of the world. Thus, the environmental crisis is not just a social crisis but at its root a spiritual crisis. Rectifying this situation cannot be just about coming up with scientific solutions or instituting legal measures that safeguard against environmental destruction. Rather it involves self-cultivation and spiritual transformation that translate into ethical actions on behalf of the natural environment. Our inner spirituality is also manifested in our relational life—our interactions and dealings with others around us. This paper affirms that the natural environment can appropriately constitute one of the kinds of relationships in our life that we can either nourish or harm by the kind of actions that we choose to take. Unfortunately, in our life, we give great priority to our human relationships, especially with members of our immediate family, kinship or ethnic group, but completely ignore or are unaware of our relationship with nature. Thus, we do not invest any effort into improving this relationship for the better. This paper suggests that we must expand our circle of relationship beyond the limit of humanity to include other entities, especially nature.
The spirituality embedded in Buddhist environmental humanism also suggests that Buddhism is far from an ‘escapist’ spirituality. The aim for emancipation from mundane existence does not prevent us from caring for others in this world. On the contrary, compassion, loving kindness, generosity, responsibility, moderation, and a host of other Buddhist virtues that demonstrate care for others are precisely the means that help us to achieve this ultimate goal. In this manner, Buddhist aspirations are not much different from other religions, say Catholicism. Catholic theology asserts that caring for the things and people in this very world, especially the poor and the marginalized, is indeed the way to achieve eternal life in heaven (Mathew 25). Buddhism presents us with an ultimate vision of no more suffering and permanent happiness in nibbāna. Buddhism also teaches us to not be attached to things in this world, indeed not attached to even ourselves. But Buddhism does not advise us to be uncaring towards the things that belong to mundane existence. To be detached and to be uncaring should not be understood to be the same thing. Buddhist detachment does not in any way prevent us from being truly human and exercising relationally positive actions towards other people and things. Thus, there is no reason to charge Buddhists who are engaged in social issues related to the environment or to the poor as being inauthentic in their Buddhist belief. Some cynical people may take issue with the notion of a “world-loving” or “world-affirming” Buddhist. However, if Buddhist humanism is understood correctly, there is nothing inherently wrong with this disposition. In fact, Buddhist humanism affirms that one cannot be authentically Buddhist without striving to be fully human, i.e., that is being human in the noblest sense of the word, and totally imbued with the virtues that demonstrate love and compassion to a suffering world. The quote attributed to St Irenaeus of Lyons (2nd cent.), “Man fully alive is the glory of God” is often used to illustrate the essence of Christian humanism. For Buddhist humanism and its implications for environmental flourishing, we can assert that ‘Human beings fully realized is the glory of the cosmos.’
References
Bhikkhu Bodhi. “Introduction.” In Dāna: The Practice of Giving. Edited by Biddkhu Bodhi. 1995. Retrieved from http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/various/wheel367.html.
Bhikkhu Bodhi. The Noble Eightfold Path: the Way to the End of Suffering. Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1998a.
Bhikkhu Bodhi. The Five Spiritual Faculties. 1998b Retrieved from http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/bodhi/bps-essay_22.html.
Bhikkhu Bodhi. The Buddha and His Dhamma. 2006. Retrieved from http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/bodhi/wheel433.html.
Buddhadasa. “The Natural Cure for Spiritual Disease: a Guide into Buddhist Science.” 1997. Retrieved from http://www.suanmokkh.org/archive/arts/ret/natcure1a.htm on 15 May 2015.
Chiariello, Paul. “Buddhism & Humanism: Two Sides of the same Coin, Part 1.” Applied Sentience (May 23, 2014). Retrieved from https://appliedsentience.com/2014/05/23/buddhism-humanism-two-sides-of-the-same-coin-part-1/.
Cooper, David E., and Simon P. James. Buddhism, Virtue and Environment. Aldershot, England: Ashgate Pub Co., 2005.
Francis, H.T. and R.A. Neil. The Jataka, Vol.III. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1897.
Hayward, Tim. “Anthropocentrism: A Misunderstood Problem.” Environmental Values 6, no. 1 (1997): 49–63.
Holder, John J. “A Suffering (but Not Irreparable) Nature: Environmental Ethics from the Perspective of Early Buddhism.” Contemporary Buddhism 8, no. 2 (2007): 113–130.
James, Simon P. (2007). Against Holism: Rethinking Buddhist Environmental Ethics. Environmental Values 16, no. 4 (2007): 447–461.
Jootla, Susan E. (1995). “The Practice of Giving.” In Dāna: The Practice of Giving. Edited by Biddkhu Bodhi. 1995. Retrieved from http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/various/wheel367.html. .
Kalupahana, David J. "Buddhism and Chinese Humanism." This paper was presented at a Symposium on Chinese Humanism, sponsored by the Society for Asian and Comparative Philosophy during a special session of the American Philosophical Association, March 25, 1977,
Kalupahana, David J. “Buddhist Approach to the Environmental Problem.” In Buddhist Approach to Environmental Crisis. The International Buddhist Conference on the United Nations Day of Vesak Celebration, 4-6 May 2009. Edited by Padmasiri De Silva, 1-10.
Keown, Damien. The Nature of Buddhist Ethics. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001.
Malalasekera, G. P. “The Status of the Individual in Theravada Buddhism.”
Philosophy East and West XIV, no. 2 (1964): 145–56.
Nichiren. “The True Aspect of All Phenomena.” In The Writings of Nichiren Daishonin. Tokyo: Soka Gakkei, 1999.
Norton, Bryan. Toward Unity Among Environmentalists. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.
O’Brien, Barbara. “The Three Poisons.” Learn Religions (June 23, 2018). Retrieved from https://www.learnreligions.com/the-three-poisons-449603.
Payutto, Phra Prayudh. Thai People and Forest (คนไทยกับป่า). Bangkok: Karomwichakan, 2010.
Phra Dharmakosajarn. Dharma and Environmental Preservation. Bangkok, Thailand: Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya Press, 2011.
Puntasen, Apichai. Buddhist Economics as a New Paradigm towards Happiness. Society and Economy 29, no. 2 (2007): 181-200.
Sahni, Pragati. Environmental Ethics in Buddhism: A Virtues Approach. New York: Routledge, 2007.
Schmithausen, Lambert. “The Early Buddhist Tradition and Ecological Ethics.” In How Much Is Enough?: Buddhism, Consumerism and the Human Environment. Edited by Richard K. Payne, 171-222. Somerville, MA: Wisdom Publications, 2010.
Swearer, Ronald K. “Buddhist Virtue, Voluntary Poverty, and Extensive Benevolence.” The Journal of Religious Ethics 26, no. 1 (1998): 71–103.
Varanasi, Lalji 'Shravak'. (1999). “Buddha’s Rejection of the Brahmanical Notion of Atman.” Communication & Cognition 32, no. 1-2 (1999): 9-20.
Pali Canon Texts
Bhikkhu Bodhi (Trans.). The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Saṃyutta Nikāya. Second edition. Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2003.
Bhikkhu Bodhi (Trans.). The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha: A Complete Translation of the Anguttara Nikaya. Annotated edition. Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2012.
Bhikkhu Nanamoli (Trans.). The Middle Discourses of the Buddha: A New Translation of the Majjhima Nikāya. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 1995.
Bhikkhu Nanamoli. (Trans.). Path of Purification: Visuddhimagga (The Classic Manual of Buddhist Doctrine and Meditation). Fourth edition. Buddhist Publication Society, 2010.
Oldenberg, H., and R. Pischel (Trans). Therıgatha. London: PTS, 1966.
Oldenberg, H., and R. Pischel (Eds). Vinaya Piṭaka. Vol. IV, PTS, 1879-1883.
Sangharakshita (Trans.). Dhammapada: The Way of Truth. Tra edition. Windhorse Publications Ltd, 2013.
Walshe, Maurice (Trans.). The Long Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Digha Nikāya. Second edition. Boston: Wisdom Publications, 1995.
Windish, E. (Ed.). Itivuttaka. London: PTS, 1889.
No comments:
Post a Comment