Exploring the profound legacy of Confucian teachings, both within the historical context of traditional East Asia and in the contemporary world, unveils a rich tapestry of wisdom that has guided individuals and societies for millennia. Rooted in the core values of personal, social harmony, and ethical conduct, Confucianism transcends mere belief to become a way of life that has shaped the cultural and spiritual fabric of Asia and resonates even in the global context today. At its heart, Confucianism emanates from the ancient Chinese cultural ethos, aiming to cultivate humanity's highest potential through self-improvement and harmonious coexistence. Amidst complex global challenges, from ecological crises to digital information saturation, Confucianism's emphasis on inner transformation and self-cultivation offers profound insights. By nurturing one's inner core, individuals can navigate modern intricacies and promote harmonious relationships on a societal level and beyond.
Confucianism in Traditional East Asia
At the heart of Chinese culture lies the ancient tradition of Confucianism, which is deeply invested in the process of cultivating humanity to its highest potential. For several millennia, this spiritual, cultural, and social foundation has served as a guiding light for countless individuals throughout Asia and beyond. The teachings of Confucianism offer a path to personal development, emphasizing the importance of self-improvement and social harmony. Although in the West, the study of religion typically classifies Confucianism and another famous Chinese tradition of Daoism as religions, the people of these cultures do not necessarily view them in the same way. In fact, individuals from China may adamantly deny that they are Confucianist or Daoist and that these are religions at all.[1] To them, these ancient traditions are not so much systems of belief to be adhered to, but a way of life, a cultural inheritance to be treasured and practiced with great reverence. To use an analogy, Confucianism is like the sun that shines on the fields, nurturing and cultivating life, while Daoism is like a river that flows with effortless grace, guiding and harmonizing everything in its path. These traditions are not just philosophies, but ways of being, an essential part of the fabric of their lives.
For East Asians, the idea of religion is a relatively new concept, one that was introduced to them by Westerners during the era of colonialism. The word 'religion' itself was a latecomer to their languages, first translated into Japanese as ‘shukyo’ in the 19th century, and later adopted by Chinese scholars in the form of the Mandarin word ‘zongjiao.’ However, the East Asian perspective on religion is quite different from that of the West. To them, the term 'religion' literally means ‘institutional teaching’ or ‘school of instruction,’ which evokes images of something organized, institutional, and sectarian.[2] In contrast, the traditional East Asian approach to spirituality is more fluid, flexible, and all-encompassing. It is not confined to a particular doctrine or creed, nor is it centered around a specific deity or pantheon of gods. Rather, it is a way of life, a holistic approach to living that encompasses every aspect of human existence. To the East Asian mind, Confucianism is not a religion per se, but a pervasive and diffused cultural, social, and spiritual force that supports the cultivation of ethical conduct, personal morality, and social harmony.
The other well-known tradition from China, Daoism, is also considered by Chinese throughout history to be complementary to Confucianism. They interpenetrate each other so much that these two religious and philosophical systems may be considered two aspects of a single religious tradition. The Western classification of these traditions as separate entities is misleading, for they are like two sides of the same coin, reflecting the Chinese religious and cultural milieu and sensibility. Although the Chinese people may not identify themselves as followers of Confucianism or Daoism, the influence of these traditions can be felt in their daily lives. They participate in family-oriented rituals that have been rooted in Confucianism and Daoism for generations, such as making regular offerings to their ancestors, even if they do not explicitly consider themselves Confucian or Daoist. These practices are an essential part of their cultural and spiritual heritage, deeply ingrained in the fabric of their society, and form a significant source of their identity.
Asian as well as Western scholars of religion have included Confucianism in the list of world religions because like other religious systems, Confucianism aims to provide the means to realize the human desire to achieve ultimate transformation at the individual as well as the communal level. Despite more than two millennia have passed since Confucius first espoused his philosophy, the issues that troubled him remain terribly relevant to the modern world. Though the specific contexts may have changed, the overarching themes of political division, official corruption, poverty, and injustice still plague societies today. In his time, Confucius believed that these ills were caused by the disintegration of traditional values that had once bound communities together. Reverence for Heaven, rituals, ancestors, and elders had fallen away in favor of selfishness and apathy. People had forgotten that true prosperity could only be achieved by prioritizing the good of the community over personal gain. Confucius was convinced that the key to overcoming these issues lay in a return to traditional values, as well as in the cultivation of moral character through ritual, music, and literature.[3]
Confucius advocated for the reinstitution of the Way (dao), which had governed people’s moral life in the ancient past but was lost during his own time. The Way, a physical path or road, was the Heaven-endorsed path or moral virtue known and practiced by the ancient sages. During the rule of the ancient sage-kings Yao and Shun, moral virtues were not only present in the rulers but also in the officials who served them. The Way was embodied by social leaders and concretely manifested in ritual practices, music, and literature. In the Golden Age of Zhou, moral virtues reached their peak. Although these practices had been passed down and remained available during his time, they were no longer revered and practiced. For Confucius, it was necessary to recover and promote these practices, as any authentic human being must walk this moral path.[4]
Thus, Confucius' teachings on human ethics and morality, as recorded by his devoted students in the Analects, were a call to action aimed at reclaiming the glory of the past in order to confront the challenges of the present. The great master did not profess to be the originator of these teachings, but rather a messenger of the wisdom of the ancient sages. "I transmit but do not create. I place my trust in the teachings of antiquity," Confucius humbly proclaimed. Indeed, the values and practices he championed had endured long before his time, and it was his mission to compile, systematize, and promote the beliefs and practices that had constituted the Chinese cultural and moral fabric for centuries.[5]
While Confucius’ teachings largely focused on social relationships, later Confucian scholars expanded on his ideas, giving rise to Neo-Confucianism. This school of thought gained prominence during the Song (960–1276) and Ming (1368–1643) dynasties and introduced a significant environmental dimension that drew inspiration from Daoist and Buddhist thoughts.[6] Neo-Confucianists incorporated these perspectives to develop an ethical vision that reflected a more naturalistic cosmological outlook. This orientation envisioned that self-cultivation was not only essential in promoting social harmony but also instrumental in achieving alignment with the universe.[7] Through this holistic approach, Neo-Confucianism emphasized the interconnectedness of all beings and the importance of cultivating a deep reverence for the natural world.
Confucianism and the Contemporary Context
For the past several thousand years, the tenets of Confucianism have exerted a profound influence on the spiritual and ethical development of the Chinese people, and even beyond. Through its emphasis on ancestor veneration, its educational curriculum focused on history and culture, and its principles for fostering harmonious family and social relationships, Confucianism has provided a comprehensive framework for moral and societal development. Moreover, this venerable philosophy has been successful in grounding ethical teachings and principles in a broader religious or cosmic context, imbuing them with a deeper sense of meaning and purpose.[8] Confucianism's significance persists to this day due to historical events and migration, shaping the lives of people across Asia, including but not limited to China, Hong Kong, Macao, Taiwan, Korea, Japan, Vietnam, as well as countries with significant Chinese migrant populations, such as Malaysia and Singapore.[9] Vietnam received the earliest wave of Chinese influence during the first centuries of the common era. Korea and Japan experienced the second wave, which had its greatest impact from the eighth century onward, despite beginning in the fourth century. Hong Kong, Taiwan, and other regions experienced the third and fourth waves during modern history.[10] Confucianism's teachings on ancestor veneration, education, harmonious relationships, and ethical principles grounded in a religious or cosmic reality have endured throughout these waves of cultural influence and migration.
Drawing inspiration from the ancient traditions of Confucianism, one can discern that history holds many valuable lessons. In today's world, the problems that Confucius confronted during his time are compounded by the escalating ecological crisis, threat of nuclear war, and digitally generated infodemics. In the face a complex interplay of challenges, it is pertinent to seek guidance from the age-old wisdom of Confucianism. The Confucian response to such challenges is rooted in the idea of cultivating our inner core, beginning with our own self. Through a holistic and integrated approach, we can undertake a journey towards self-transformation, realizing that the pursuit of our own perfection is not only desirable but necessary in navigating the intricacies of the modern age.
In the wake of modernity, our societies have undergone drastic transformations. However, the legacy of Confucianism endures through its teachings on education as a pathway towards self-cultivation and transformation. As aptly noted by Tu Weiming, a renowned contemporary Confucian scholar, the pursuit of self-transformation through Confucianism is primarily for our own sake, a means to realize our true human potential. According to Tu, “Character building, the primary purpose of Confucian moral education, begins with self-cultivation. But education is more than the mere acquisition of knowledge or the internalization of skills. It is a holistic way of learning to be human. In Confucian terms, such learning is defined as ‘learning for the sake of the self,’ ‘the learning of the heart-mind and nature,’ or ‘learning to be a profound person.’”[11]
At first sight, this self-cultivation seems to be an individualistic act serving one’s own interest. However, Tu contends that education is in fact a communal act. Confucian learning takes the individual as the starting point of departure, an independent and autonomous entity “predicated on the dignity of the person as an internal value rather than a socially constructed reality.”[12] Nevertheless, the self as the center in the Confucian project is not an isolated individual, but as the center of an interconnected and ever-expanding network of human relations – the community comprised of family, village, country, world, and cosmos. Tu remarked, “Self-realization as a communal act presupposes a personal commitment for harmonizing the family, governing the state, and bringing peace to the world. The full realization of personhood entails the real possibility of transcending selfishness, nepotism, parochialism, nationalism, and anthropocentrism.”[13]
Therefore, the Confucian approach to self-cultivation is a holistic one, encompassing not only personal growth, but also a deep appreciation for the interconnectedness of four fundamental relationships in human life: self, community, nature, and Heaven. This outlook constitutes a spiritual humanism that stands in stark contrast to the anthropocentric worldview of secular humanism found in the Western Enlightenment mentality, which seeks to dominate and subjugate nature while denying the transcendent. Rather than perpetuating this harmful outlook, Confucianism strives for a harmonious “integration of body and mind, a fruitful interaction of self and community, a sustainable and harmonious relationship between the human species and nature, and a mutuality between the human heart and the Way of Heaven.”[14] As Wing-tsit Chan asserted, “If one word could characterize the entire history of Chinese philosophy, that would be humanism – not the humanism that denies or slights a Supreme Power, but one that professes the unity of man and Heaven.”[15]
The tenets of Confucianism, drawing from both historical wisdom and present-day understanding, remind us that the pursuit of self-cultivation extends beyond individual betterment. It is a communal act that challenges the individualistic ethos often promoted by modernity, providing a powerful alternative that nurtures both personal growth and the interconnected well-being of society and the world. Thus, Confucian teachings can offer a valuable compass that guides us in navigating the complexities of existence. While the world continues to change, the core principles of Confucianism remain an enduring source of wisdom and should be explored and recovered to address the concerns of our own time.
[1] Randall L. Nadeau, Asian Religions: A Cultural Perspective (Malden, MA: Wiley Blackwell, 2014), 21.
[2] Ibid.
[3] Edward Slingerland, Confucius Analects: With Selections from Traditional Commentaries (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 2003), xxiii.
[4] Ibid., xxii
[5] Nadeau, Asian Religions, 23.
[6] Baoyu Li, Jesper Sjöström, Bangping Ding, and Ingo Eilks, “Education for Sustainability Meets Confucianism in Science Education,” Science & Education (June 2022), https://doi.org/10.1007/s11191-022-00349-9.
[7] T. Savelyeva, “Vernadsky Meets Yulgok: A Non-Western Dialog on Sustainability,” Educational Philosophy and Theory 49, no. 5 (2017): 501–520.
[8] Nadeau, Asian Religions, 23.
[9] Baoyu Li et al., “Education for Sustainability Meets Confucianism in Science Education,” Science & Education (June 2022), https://doi.org/10.1007/s11191-022-00349-9,
[10] Nadeau, Asian Religions, 24.
[11] Tu Weiming, “Ecological Implications of Confucian Humanism,” (nd), http://msihyd.org/pdf/19manuscript_tu.pdf, 78.
[12] Ibid.
[13] Ibid., 79.
[14] Tu Weiming, “Spiritual Humanism,” Speech given at Hangzhou International Congress, “Culture: Key to Sustainable Development”, 15-17 May 2013, Hangzhou, China.
[15] Wing-tsit Chan, trans., A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1969), 3.
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