Compassion is an emotional reaction that arises from empathy – the ability to recognize, understand, and share the thoughts and feelings of others.[1] Thus, compassion is defined as “an empathic understanding of a person's feelings, accompanied by altruism, or a desire to act on that person's behalf.”[2] Compassion compels one to feel a genuine desire to offer assistance to others to alleviate their suffering in the face of trials and tribulations. Within the human community, it is an expression of kindness that stems from recognizing the shared humanity of individuals. However, in the context of inter-creationality, it is the shared reality of mundane existence characterized by vulnerability and suffering.
In Buddhism, compassion is often mentioned in the same breath with ‘loving kindness,’ which encompasses a whole range of positive attitudes and actions that demonstrate empathy, kindness, mercy, and solidarity with others. Loving kindness and compassion are two of the four sublime abodes along with sympathetic joy and equanimity. Loving kindness is the wish that all sentient beings, without exception, be happy while compassion is the genuine desire to alleviate the sufferings of others which one is able to feel. Buddhism emphasizes extending loving-kindness universally, promoting boundless goodwill and harmonious relationships with all beings, devoid of enmity or ill will (A.I.183). The Buddha exhorted the faithful to exercise loving kindness to others no matter whether they are weak or strong, big or small, seen or unseen, near or far away. Monks are enjoined also to have loving kindness even in the face of challenges and difficulties (M.I.123).
Along with loving kindness, compassion is essential to one’s moral perfection. In Buddhism, the pursuit of human perfection, embodied by concepts such as Buddhahood, arhatship, bodhisattvahood, and others, is achieved through a lifelong commitment to nurturing virtues like wisdom and compassion.[3] Compassion is exemplified by the Buddha himself who is said to be the “one person who arises in the world…out of compassion for the world” (A.I.23) and continued the mission of propagating the dhamma “simply out of sympathy and compassion for living beings” (A.II.177). Thus, as Simon P. James observed, “To be compassionate is to feel compassion for all sentient beings, human and non-human, and to act so as to alleviate their suffering.”[4]
The practice of loving kindness and compassion holds a potent power to transform society and the environment in ways that are profound and far-reaching. These sublime virtues, as the Buddha so eloquently taught, are to be nurtured and cultivated by monks and laypeople alike, with the aim of extending their influence beyond the boundaries of their immediate communities, towards the entire world.[5] How could one limit their compassion and kindness solely to human and sentient beings, while the destruction of rainforests and the pollution of the air and rivers harm countless living beings, both great and small?
The true implication of loving kindness and compassion, when applied to the environment, requires us to respond to all dimensions of life with sensitivity and care, and to consider the ecological balance of all aspects of nature. It is not enough to be selectively compassionate; instead, a truly compassionate person extends their loving kindness and compassion to all sentient beings and to the non-sentient environment that support the flourishing of living beings. The virtuous dealings of such a person with the entire world reflect their level of compassion.[6]
In Confucianism, compassion can be found in the virtue of ‘ren’ (仁), which as discussed in Chapter 3, is one of the most important virtues. It is a central concept that refers to a combination of kindness, benevolence, and humanity towards others. It emphasizes the importance of treating others with compassion, empathy, and understanding, and is often described as the foundation of all other virtues. According to Mencius, a disciple of Confucius, people are naturally born with a sense of compassion and care for others. Compassion constitutes one of the four innate ‘sprouts’ that if properly nurtured and cultivated will help the person to become a more fully realized person imbued with the virtue of ren. Just as a seed needs the right conditions of sunlight, water, and soil to grow, the sprout of compassion needs the right conditions to flourish. These conditions include a supportive environment, positive role models, and the opportunity to practice compassion regularly.
The goal of practicing kindness and compassion as part of ren is to create a harmonious society, where everyone is treated with dignity and respect, and where there is a sense of community and social responsibility. This virtue can also promote environmental well-being by cultivating a sense of compassion and care towards all living beings, including the natural world. Mencius wrote that a virtuous person is “benevolent towards the people” and “feel love for all things.”[7] It has been stated that in Confucianism, there is no injunction to display benevolence to non-human beings for their own sake.[8] However, there are strands of Confucian thought that seem to moralize the relationship between human beings and nature. Indeed, Wang Yangming (1472–1529) proposed a perspective that sees the unity of human beings and the universe. He believed that the benevolent heart forms a connection with all things, leading to a sense of solidarity with others. Whether it's witnessing a child in danger, the suffering of animals, or the destruction of plants and even inanimate objects, our benevolence allows us to empathize and unite with them. In this perspective, the relationship between humans and nature is imbued with moral significance. Negative behaviors that harm the environment are condemned as morally wrong, while positive actions that respect the natural order are praised as virtuous. This holistic worldview embraces the idea that all people are considered as siblings and all things are seen as companions. This moral consciousness influences human awareness of the interconnectedness between humans and the natural world, promoting environmental protection and emphasizing human responsibility towards the environment.[9]
The philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer whose thought was greatly influenced by Buddhism, remarked, “Compassion for animals is intimately associated with goodness of character, and it may be confidently asserted that he who is cruel to animals cannot be a good man.”[10] The ethical framework of religious traditions demonstrate that they can enable human awareness of the moral responsibility that human beings must have toward non-human creation. By extending our kindness and compassion to the environment, we can foster sustainable practices and protect the natural world from harm. The practice of these virtues enables us to understand and appreciate the interconnectedness and value of all things, leading us to a deeper appreciation for the natural world and a desire to preserve it for generations to come. A quote that sometimes has been attributed to Chief Seattle, a Native American leader of the Suquamish and Duwamish tribes declares, “We do not inherit the earth from our ancestors, we borrow it from our children.”[11] It is impossible to separate benevolence towards human beings from that of non-human nature, for they are intertwined and inextricable from one another. As such, our compassionate actions must encompass the whole of the environment, leaving no stone unturned in our quest for a better world.
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[1] Pyschology Today, “Empathy,” https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/empathy
[2] Jacinta Jiménez, "Compassion vs. empathy: Understanding the Difference," BetterUp, July 16, 2021, https://www.betterup.com/blog/compassion-vs-empathy#:~:text=Consider%20these%20definitions%3A,creates%20a%20desire%20to%20help.
[3] Damien Keown, “Buddhism and Ecology: A Virtue Ethics Approach,” Contemporary Buddhism 8, no. 2 (2007):101.
[4] Simon P. James, Zen Buddhism and Environmental Ethics (Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2004), 128.
[5] Pragati Sahni, Environmental Ethics in Buddhism: A Virtues Approach (New York: Routledge, 2007), 120.
[6] Simon P. James, “Against Holism: Rethinking Buddhist Environmental Ethics,” Environmental Values 16, no. 4 (2007): 457.
[7] Quoted in Xinzhong Yao, “An Eco-Ethical Interpretation of Confucian Tianren Heyi,” Frontiers of Philosophy in China 9 (2014): 576.
[8] Yao, “An Eco-Ethical Interpretation of Confucian Tianren Heyi,” 579.
[9] Yao, “An Eco-Ethical Interpretation of Confucian Tianren Heyi,” 581.
[10] Arthur Schopenhauer, The Basis of Morality (London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1903).
[11] There is no definitive source for this quote. The quote has been ascribed to various individuals, including Wendell Berry, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Chief Seattle, Moses Henry Cass, Dennis J. Hall, Helen Caldicott, Lester Brown, David R. Brower, and Taghi Farvar. It has also been associated with both a Native American proverb and an Amish saying.
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