A Buddhist Diagnosis
Examining human challenges from a Buddhist perspective involves a systematic exploration of the underlying issues. According to Buddhist teachings, these challenges stem from deep-seated moral and spiritual conflicts. By understanding and addressing this aspect of human existence, we can effectively confront personal and societal problems arising from internal discord. The Buddhist approach necessitates a thorough investigation of the human condition to shed light on the crisis.
Regarding environmental issues, it's important to recognize that Buddhism doesn't offer a direct analysis of today's ecological crises. During the time of the Buddha, while environmental concerns were not as severe as contemporary issues, there were significant problems affecting both humans and nature. For instance, water sanitation was a critical issue due to the health risks posed by drinking contaminated water. The Buddha's directive prohibiting monks from urinating in rivers likely aimed to safeguard water purity.[1]
Human encroachment into forest lands was a notable issue, illustrated in the tale of two tree spirits affected by human activities. In the Vyagghajataka story, two spirits lived in separate trees within a forest. The presence of predators like tigers and lions hunting prey created a disturbance with the scent of carcasses. One spirit decided to scare away the predators despite warnings from the other spirit. This action inadvertently led humans to become bolder in their forest ventures for hunting and trade, eventually leading to deforestation as they cleared land for cultivation. As a result, the two tree spirits lost their homes.[2]
Modern scholars of Buddhism agree that the Ganges region in India, where the religion originated, experienced significant urbanization and population growth. The establishment of urban centers led to deforestation, which in turn supported commercial activities and trade between nearby and distant populations.[3] The Buddha spent his formative years in an urban setting, and even during his time as a wandering ascetic, his teachings and lifestyle were deeply connected to city life. Early Buddhist texts indicate that 96 percent of the 4,257 recorded teaching sites were in urban areas, and 94 percent of the approximately 1,400 individuals mentioned lived in cities.[4] This historical context suggests that the roots of today's ecological challenges can be traced back to ancient times, when societal development involved practices that impacted the natural environment.
While the Buddha didn't directly address environmental issues, his teachings on the suffering of sentient beings shed light on the imbalances humans create in their relationships with the world. These external challenges often mirror internal tendencies that underlie both personal and societal problems. According to the Buddha, human existence can be categorized into two states: wholesome (kusala) and unwholesome (akusala).[5] The root causes of the unwholesome states are greed (lōbha/rāga), hatred (dosa), and delusion (moha), whereas the root causes of the wholesome states are non-greed, non-hatred, and non-delusion.
These universal forces drive every aspect of animate life, influencing both individuals and communities, shaping our thoughts, speech, and actions. Upon reflection, we recognize that these unwholesome roots, often referred to as poisons, prompt behaviors that cause suffering for ourselves and others, directly conflicting with our innate pursuit of happiness. The realm of the unwholesome extends beyond mere immorality; certain thoughts and actions, though not necessarily immoral, can still be deemed unwholesome and yield unfavorable karmic outcomes.[6]
Greed represents an intense craving, desire, or attachment to sensual pleasures, material possessions, or selfish pursuits. Greed arises from a distorted perception of satisfaction and happiness, leading individuals to believe that acquiring more wealth, possessions, or sensory pleasures will bring lasting fulfillment. This attachment disrupts inner peace and leads to unwholesome actions (akusala kamma) that harm oneself and others. The consequences of greed can manifest as actions such as hoarding, exploitation, manipulation, and neglect of ethical considerations. In the Visuddhimagga, a comprehensive Theravada Buddhist text composed by the Indian Buddhist scholar Buddhaghosa, greed is identified as one of the primary obstacles to spiritual progress and awakening (nibbana). It is seen as a hindrance to developing qualities such as generosity (dana), contentment (santutthi), and renunciation (nekkhamma), which are essential for overcoming suffering and achieving true happiness.
According to Visuddhimagga, greed makes us constantly preoccupied with a feeling of need and want because we feel there is a lack in our life; and since our appetite is insatiable, even when we obtain what we have wanted, we continue to feel the desire for lasting satisfaction. The commentarial literature compares greed’s grasp on us like monkey lime, trapping us in a constant state of wanting. It functions like meat sizzling in a hot pan, continuously burning with the fire of craving. It refuses to relinquish its hold, clinging like the stubborn dye of lamp black. The root cause of this covetousness lies in finding pleasure in that which leads to bondage. This overpowering current of greed can drag us like a swift-flowing river to states of loss, ultimately leading to the great ocean of suffering.[7]
In Pāli Buddhism, there are distinct terms used to denote different intensities and aspects of greed, notably "lōbha" and "rāga." "Lōbha" is the stronger term, derived from "lo" suggesting a strong attraction akin to an ant to honey, and "bha" indicating existence or possession. It signifies an intense attachment to worldly things, often manifesting in desires for personal accumulation of wealth and possessions, regardless of one's current affluence. This extreme form of greed can drive individuals to commit highly immoral acts (pāpa kamma) that may lead to negative karmic consequences (apāyā). Conversely, "rāga" denotes a milder form of attachment and desire, where one is inclined towards sensory pleasures and the comforts of worldly life without necessarily harming others or engaging in immoral behavior. While "rāga" can lead to "lōbha" if unchecked, it primarily reflects a natural preference for pleasurable experiences within the cycle of rebirth (saṃsāra).[8]
Hatred arises from aversion or ill-will towards oneself or others, leading to a variety of negative emotional states. Hatred can manifest in numerous degrees, ranging from mild irritation and annoyance to intense anger and outright hostility. In its milder forms, hatred may present as frustration, impatience, or annoyance, creating a sense of discomfort and unease. These feelings can escalate into more severe forms, such as resentment, bitterness, and contempt. At its most intense, hatred can lead to aggressive and destructive behaviors, including verbal and physical violence, and even acts of vengeance.
Hatred encompasses a spectrum of other negative emotions. Disappointment, for example, can arise when expectations are unmet, leading to a sense of aversion towards the situation or individuals involved. Despair and dejection occur when one feels overwhelmed by circumstances, often resulting in self-directed anger and a profound sense of helplessness. Anxiety and fear can also be expressions of aversion, where the mind reacts with hostility to perceived threats, whether real or imagined.
Buddhist teachings emphasize that hatred is a poison that distorts perception and undermines mental peace. It obscures the mind's clarity, leading to actions and decisions that cause harm to oneself and others. Hatred perpetuates suffering (dukkha) by fostering negative mental states and unwholesome actions (akusala kamma), which in turn create more suffering and reinforce the cycle of samsara (the cycle of rebirth). The commentarial literature uses a variety of images to describe the nature of hatred:
[Hatred] has the characteristic of savageness, like a provoked snake. Its function is to spread, like a drop of poison, or its function is to burn up its own support, like a forest fire. It is manifested as persecuting (dūsana), like an enemy who has got his chance. Its proximate cause is the grounds for annoyance. It should be regarded as like stale urine mixed with poison.[9]
Delusion is a fundamental source of ignorance (avijjā) that distorts perception and understanding, leading individuals astray from the path of truth and enlightenment. Delusion manifests in two significant ways: as confusion and lack of direction, and as false views that can result in ideological dogmatism and fanaticism.
Firstly, delusion in the form of ignorance leads to a state of confusion and lack of direction. This type of delusion clouds the mind, preventing individuals from seeing things as they truly are. It creates a mental fog that obscures clarity and insight, making it difficult to discern the right path. This confusion can manifest in everyday life as a lack of purpose, aimlessness, and an inability to make wise decisions. The individual remains trapped in a cycle of suffering (samsara), perpetuated by misunderstanding and misperception of reality. According to Buddhist teachings, this ignorance is not merely a lack of knowledge, but a deep-seated misapprehension about the nature of existence, the self, and the world.
Secondly, delusion can lead to the development of false views that result in ideological dogmatism and fanaticism. When individuals cling to erroneous beliefs or ideologies, they become rigid and intolerant. This form of delusion fosters division, conflict, and suffering both within individuals and in broader societal contexts. Ideological dogmatism can manifest in various forms, including religious extremism, political fanaticism, and other forms of rigid thinking that refuse to accommodate alternative perspectives or new information. Such false views are dangerous as they perpetuate ignorance and reinforce unwholesome mental states and actions (akusala kamma), thereby leading to further suffering.
Delusion operates with characteristic blindness and unknowing, functioning as a veil that conceals the true essence of objects and experiences. According to the Visuddhimagga, delusion fails to penetrate or uncover the truth, akin to impenetrable darkness. This metaphor illustrates how delusion obscures reality, leaving individuals groping in the dark, unable to find their way. The text emphasizes that delusion manifests as the absence of right understanding, arising from unwise attention and lack of mindfulness (sati). This unwise attention leads to distorted perceptions and erroneous judgments, perpetuating the cycle of delusion and suffering.[10]
These three unwholesome roots—greed, hatred, and delusion—when left unchecked, manifest in varying intensities, affecting both individual behavior and societal dynamics. Greed ranges from simple desires for comfort or wealth to intense cravings that drive unethical behavior like theft, manipulation, and exploitation. It leads to resource hoarding and an insatiable desire for more, often at the expense of others' well-being. In extreme forms, greed fuels corporate malpractices and environmental degradation as profit is prioritized over ethics and sustainability.
Hatred, or aversion, spans from mild irritation to extreme vengefulness and wrath. At its mildest, it manifests as impatience or frustration in daily interactions. If allowed to grow, it can escalate into deep-seated resentment, hostility, and even acts of violence, leading to personal conflicts, domestic abuse, or large-scale aggression such as wars and genocides. Hatred perpetuates a cycle of retaliation and vengeance, causing suffering and discord on both personal and collective levels.
Delusion, the third root defilement, starts as ignorance or misunderstanding and can escalate into severe forms like conceit, arrogance, and ideological dogmatism. Initially, delusion might present as confusion or lack of awareness about the true nature of reality. Over time, it can develop into rigid belief systems and fanaticism, where individuals or groups refuse to acknowledge alternative perspectives or evidence. This can lead to extreme behaviors like ideological extremism, discrimination, and systemic injustice, where deluded beliefs justify harmful actions.
The interdependence of these roots is profound. Greed can swiftly morph into hatred when desires are thwarted by others or challenging situations. Delusion underpins these roots, leading us to believe that we must possess certain things or loathe certain people, causing us to cling desperately to desires and prejudices. The Dhammapada warns that the net of delusion is the most potent source of entanglement, trapping us in a cycle of misery and suffering: “There is no fire like passion, there is no grip like ill will, there is no net like ignorance, there is no river like craving.”[11] The greatest delusion in Buddhism is the false belief in the ego, which drives us to construct, defend, and glorify our sense of self.
These unwholesome roots not only afflict individuals but also manifest on a collective level. When individuals are afflicted by these negative states of mind, they compete for power and status, leading to conflicts and violence. This collective struggle entrenches the cycle of suffering, as societies become embroiled in disputes fueled by the same greed, hatred, and delusion that plague individual minds. Understanding and addressing these roots within ourselves is essential for personal liberation and for fostering a more harmonious and compassionate world.
Hatred thrives on conflicting interests and often seeds social and political conflicts, escalating into wars and atrocities like genocides and ecocides. Leaders and institutions exploit hatred to rally people to egotistical goals or collective causes. The world today bears witness to this promotion of hate, with nationalism turning into nativism, religious fervor becoming radical fundamentalism, and self-protection metamorphosing into terrorism. The destructive cycle of hate spreads like a virus, infecting communities and nations alike.
Similarly, the social ramifications of greed and delusion extend far beyond the individual level. The insatiable desire to accumulate wealth is ingrained in people of all ages and backgrounds, fostered by constant advertising online and offline. Companies seeking continuous growth and profit use alluring words and captivating images to sell not just products but a lifestyle, a dream, a vision of success achievable only through material accumulation. Our consumer culture drives the globalized world, affecting diverse societies from secular Amsterdam to Buddhist Bangkok to Muslim Dubai.
The Buddhist scholar monk Bhikkhu Bodhi aptly illustrated the pernicious effects of the three unwholesome roots on a global scale.
Through the prevalence of greed the world has become transformed into a global marketplace where human beings are reduced to the status of consumers, even commodities, and where materialistic desires are provoked at volatile intensities. Through the prevalence of hatred, which is often kindled by competing interests governed by greed, national and ethnic differences become the breeding ground of suspicion and enmity, exploding in violence and destruction, in cruelty and brutality, in endless cycles of revenge. Delusion sustains the other two unwholesome roots by giving rise to false beliefs, dogmatic views, and philosophical ideologies devised in order to promote and justify patterns of conduct motivated by greed and hatred Through the prevalence of greed the world has become transformed into a global marketplace where human beings are reduced to the status of consumers, even commodities, and where materialistic desires are provoked at volatile intensities.[12]
If these toxic influences are not removed from our minds and behavior, humanity will continue to experience various forms of exploitation, both environmental and otherwise. As Sahni observed,
As long as the mind is influenced by the three unwholesome principles of rāga, dosa and moha or greed, hatred and delusion the human race will be stricken by environmental and other forms of exploitation, as well as selfish actions, greedy consumer cultures, dissatisfaction and other attitudes that can be looked upon as vices.[13]
Thus, the late Thai monk Buddhadasa posited that climate change and other imbalances in nature result from human moral degeneration, which impacts the external dimension of the world.[14] Gus Speth, a co-founder of the Natural Resources Defense Council and former dean of the Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, concurred with the late Buddhist teacher in these sentiments. In 2013, Speth remarked to a British radio presenter:
I used to think that top global environmental problems were biodiversity loss, ecosystem collapse, and climate change. I thought that with 30 years of good science we could address these problems, but I was wrong. The top environmental problems are selfishness, greed, and apathy, and to deal with these we need a spiritual and cultural transformation. And we scientists don’t know how to do that.[15]
Now let us look more closely at how the three poisons are manifested in the contemporary ecological crisis.
Impact of Greed, Hatred, and Delusion on the Environment
Greed
Greed, one of the three poisons identified in many philosophical and ethical traditions, poses a significant barrier to environmental flourishing. This insidious force, driven by an insatiable desire for more wealth and power, often leads to devastating consequences for the natural world and the communities that depend on it. By examining different examples from around the globe, we can see how greed undermines efforts to protect and sustain our environment.
The Amazon rainforest, often referred to as the "lungs of the Earth," serves a critical role in regulating global climate and sustaining biodiversity. This vast ecosystem thrives on a delicate balance, but rampant deforestation driven by insatiable greed has placed it in grave danger. Agribusiness giants and logging companies prioritize short-term profits, employing illegal logging and clearing land for unsustainable cattle ranching and soy plantations. They often operate with impunity, disregarding environmental regulations and the long-term consequences.
The devastation goes far beyond the environment. Indigenous communities who have called the rainforest home for generations are displaced, their way of life destroyed. Countless species lose their habitat and face extinction as the intricate web of life unravels. Furthermore, the Amazon acts as a massive carbon sink, storing billions of tons of carbon dioxide. Deforestation releases this stored carbon back into the atmosphere, significantly accelerating climate change and impacting weather patterns worldwide.
Another striking instance of greed's impact on the environment is the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010. The event became a tragic symbol of environmental devastation fueled by corporate priorities. BP, eager to capitalize on a lucrative new well, allegedly bypassed crucial safety measures to expedite drilling. This included failing to properly seal the wellhead and neglecting vital pressure tests. These cost-cutting decisions proved disastrous. An explosion ripped through the Deepwater Horizon rig, killing 11 workers and triggering an unprecedented environmental crisis. Over the next 87 days, millions of barrels of crude oil spewed into the Gulf, creating a slick the size of Rhode Island. Pristine beaches were smothered in oil, sensitive wetlands choked, and marine life suffered immensely. Dolphins, whales, and countless fish perished, their habitats poisoned. The economic impact was equally devastating. Fishing communities, whose livelihoods depended on healthy waters, saw their industries crippled. Tourism along the Gulf Coast ground to a halt, further crippling local economies. The Deepwater Horizon disaster serves as a stark reminder of the immense environmental and human cost that can be incurred when profit takes precedence over safety and responsible practices.
One of its most pernicious manifestations is consumerism. In the relentless pursuit of profit, companies seek to sell more and more products, even those that are not necessary for people’s well-being. To feed this hunger for more, companies keep releasing new products, often claiming that the upgraded version is better or more essential than the previous ones. Additionally, the ascent of fast fashion and disposable consumer goods is a major contributor to environmental deterioration. ‘Fast fashion’ is a business model and approach to clothing production that involves quickly producing and distributing inexpensive and trendy clothing to respond to the latest fashion trends. It focuses on delivering new styles and designs to consumers at a rapid pace, often imitating looks from high-end fashion brands or the latest runway shows. Fast fashion retailers prioritize speed and low costs, aiming to make fashionable clothing accessible to a wide range of consumers.[16] Social media pages are replete with advertisements of the latest clothing trends at extremely affordable prices. This is especially appealing to young people who have low budgets but a high appetite for new fashion.
Thus, fashion companies churn out an abundance of clothing that is quickly consumed and discarded. It is estimated that Shein, a fashion brand, produces at least 50,000 garments every day at extremely low cost. Therefore, when items are returned by customers, they are frequently disposed of in landfills because the expense of reintroducing these items into circulation outweighs the cost of simply getting rid of them.[17] This practice is not exclusive to Shein but can be found across the apparel industry. The production of these items often requires the use of toxic chemicals, and their disposal releases harmful pollutants into the environment. According to UNEP, the fast fashion industry ranks as the second-largest water consumer and contributes to approximately 10 percent of global carbon emissions, surpassing the combined emissions of international flights and maritime shipping.[18] Fast fashion is indicative of greed, manifested in overconsumption, at both the micro and macro level. This culture of overconsumption takes a heavy toll on nature. Mountains of waste, oceans of plastic, and depleted resources are just some of the outcomes of this voracious appetite. Thich Nhat Hanh said, “As well as the carbon dioxide pollution of our physical environment, we can speak of the spiritual pollution of our human environment: the toxic and destructive atmosphere we’re creating with our way of consuming.”[19]
The global plastic pollution crisis epitomizes how convenience-driven consumerism and corporate profit motives have profoundly degraded our environment. Plastics, with their allure of low production costs and disposability, have led corporations to flood markets with an astonishing array of single-use products. These items, from grocery bags to disposable cutlery, are designed for momentary convenience but endure for centuries in the environment due to their resistance to degradation. As a result, our oceans and waterways have become veritable dumping grounds for plastic waste, where large debris entangles and suffocates marine life, and microplastics permeate every level of the aquatic food chain.
Marine creatures suffer devastating consequences: sea turtles fatally ingest plastic bags, mistaking them for their natural prey; birds become ensnared in plastic six-pack rings, leading to injuries and death; and fish consume microplastics, which not only harm their health but also pose risks to humans who consume seafood contaminated with these particles. The sheer volume and persistence of plastic pollution have created ecological imbalances that threaten biodiversity and ecosystem stability on a global scale.
Despite mounting evidence of environmental harm, the pursuit of profit often outweighs corporate responsibility to invest in sustainable alternatives. The economic appeal of plastics continues to drive production, while viable eco-friendly options face barriers such as higher costs and slower adoption rates. This perpetuates a harmful cycle where short-term gains undermine long-term environmental sustainability.
Lastly, the mining industry, particularly in developing countries, showcases the detrimental effects of greed on the environment. In regions like the Democratic Republic of Congo, mining for valuable minerals such as cobalt and coltan, essential for electronics, has led to severe environmental destruction. Companies, often operating with minimal oversight, engage in practices that result in deforestation, soil erosion, and water contamination. The local communities, who see little benefit from the mining activities, suffer from health problems and the loss of arable land.
The mining industry, especially prominent in developing countries like the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), vividly illustrates the profound environmental degradation driven by corporate greed and exploitation. In pursuit of valuable minerals crucial for electronics, such as cobalt and coltan, mining operations in the DRC have left a devastating imprint on the environment. Companies, often operating under lax regulations and minimal oversight, engage in practices that ravage natural landscapes and ecosystems.
Deforestation is a significant consequence of mining activities in the DRC. Forested areas, vital for biodiversity and carbon sequestration, are cleared to make way for mining infrastructure and roads. This loss of habitat threatens numerous species endemic to the region, exacerbating global biodiversity decline.
Moreover, mining operations contribute to extensive soil erosion. The removal of vegetation destabilizes soil integrity, leading to erosion that washes away fertile topsoil and pollutes nearby water bodies with sediment. As a result, rivers and streams become contaminated with silt, impacting aquatic life and local communities reliant on clean water sources for drinking and agriculture.
Water contamination is another critical issue stemming from mining activities. Chemicals used in mining processes, such as cyanide and mercury, can leach into water sources, rendering them unfit for consumption and agricultural use. This pollution not only poses immediate health risks to nearby communities but also persists in the environment, affecting downstream ecosystems and potentially reaching larger populations.
Local communities in mining regions like the DRC often bear the brunt of these environmental and social impacts. Despite the extraction of valuable minerals, residents frequently see little economic benefit. Instead, they suffer from health problems caused by polluted water and air, as well as the loss of traditional livelihoods due to land degradation and displacement.
The situation in the DRC underscores a broader global issue where corporate interests frequently outweigh environmental and social considerations. To address these challenges, stringent regulations and effective enforcement are crucial to ensure responsible mining practices. Additionally, promoting transparency, accountability, and community engagement can empower local populations to benefit equitably from natural resource extraction while safeguarding the environment for future generations.
Mahatma Gandhi remarked, “Earth provides enough to satisfy every man’s need, but not every man’s greed.”[20] Breaches in environmental standards are often enabled by the corrupt backing of government officials willing to turn a blind eye to blatant environmental violations in exchange for personal financial gains.[21] Either through voluntary or obligatory bribes, permission is granted to mining companies by government officials at various levels[22] that prioritizes economic gains over environmental sustainability, resulting in the erosion of natural habitats and displacement of indigenous communities. The extraction of precious minerals like gold and copper frequently entails the clearance of forests and the use of harmful chemicals, which contaminate water sources and endanger local wildlife. The people who rely on these resources for their subsistence are frequently left with limited choices and little voice in the decision-making process. When government leaders place their own interests over the welfare of the citizenry and the natural environment, transparency and accountability suffer, paving the way for a culture of corruption that undermines the public good.
These examples highlight a pervasive issue: greed drives corporations and industries to prioritize profit over environmental well-being. This relentless pursuit of wealth leads to practices that devastate ecosystems, harm wildlife, and jeopardize the health and livelihoods of countless people. To combat this, there must be a collective effort to promote individual and corporate responsibility, enforce stricter environmental regulations, and shift towards sustainable practices. Only by addressing the root cause of greed can we hope to achieve true environmental flourishing and ensure a healthier planet for future generations.
Hatred
Hatred, one of the three poisons in Buddhist teachings, significantly contributes to environmental degradation through its various manifestations, ranging from overt aggression to subtle apathy. This toxic emotion infiltrates the actions of individuals, governments, and corporations, leading to the ruthless exploitation of natural resources. Historical and recent global events provide a stark illustration of how hatred's destructive force impacts our planet.
For centuries, the narrative of national expansion and modernization has been one of inevitable progress. Yet, a closer examination reveals a darker side to this story, where imperialism and oppression served as the engines of growth, often at the devastating expense of the environment. The colonial exploitation of the Americas, Africa, and Asia stands as a stark reminder of this destructive dynamic, leaving behind a legacy of widespread deforestation, pollution, and the disruption of indigenous ecosystems.
Imperialism, by its very nature, is a system of domination. Empires sought not just political control but also the resources and riches of their colonies. In the Americas, vast swathes of virgin forests were mercilessly cleared to make way for cash crops like tobacco, cotton, and sugar. This large-scale deforestation not only destroyed habitats and displaced wildlife but also disrupted natural water cycles, leading to soil erosion and desertification. Similarly, Africa witnessed the ruthless extraction of resources like ivory, rubber, and minerals. These practices, fueled by a desire for profit with little regard for the long-term consequences, inflicted significant damage on the land.
Oppression, the handmaiden of imperialism, further exacerbated the environmental damage. Colonial powers often forced indigenous populations to work in hazardous conditions, exploiting their labor to extract resources at an unsustainable rate. Traditional agricultural practices, which often existed in harmony with the environment, were disregarded in favor of large-scale monoculture plantations, leading to soil depletion and a decline in biodiversity. Additionally, the introduction of invasive species by colonizers disrupted existing ecological balances, causing further harm.
The environmental consequences of imperialism extended beyond resource extraction. Colonial powers often viewed the colonized landscapes as blank slates, imposing their own ideas of order on natural environments. This led to the destruction of sacred sites and the disruption of deep-rooted cultural connections between indigenous peoples and their lands. The loss of these connections not only caused cultural and social upheaval but also weakened the traditional knowledge systems that had, for generations, ensured the sustainable management of natural resources.
Warfare, a brutal clash between nations, is often perceived as a purely political and social phenomenon. However, the scars it leaves go far deeper, inflicting a devastating toll on the natural environment. The ongoing war in Ukraine, triggered by the Russian invasion in February 2022, serves as a stark reminder of this collateral damage. While military targets take center stage, the environment becomes a silent casualty, enduring immense and long-lasting consequences.
One of the most immediate threats comes from the direct impact of military activity. Exploding bombs, artillery fire, and missile strikes leave behind a trail of contaminated land and polluted water. A report by the Ukrainian Ministry of Environment in collaboration with climate researchers estimates that the war has caused the release of 175 million metric tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere. This arises from factors like burning fuel for military vehicles, wildfires ignited during the conflict, and the destruction of infrastructure requiring massive reconstruction with high carbon footprints.
Furthermore, the war disrupts critical environmental monitoring and protection efforts. Wildlife sanctuaries and natural reserves become battlegrounds, jeopardizing the habitats of endangered species. Additionally, with displaced populations and strained resources, proper waste management becomes a secondary concern, leading to increased pollution and potential contamination of water sources.
The Black Sea, a vital ecosystem for Ukraine and neighboring countries, faces a particular threat. Sunken warships and damaged oilrigs pose risks of spills and leaks, threatening marine life and disrupting fishing industries. The war has also hampered efforts to address pre-existing environmental challenges in the Black Sea, such as pollution and overfishing.
The long-term consequences of environmental damage during war are equally concerning. Contaminated soil can render vast areas unsuitable for agriculture for years to come, impacting food security not only in Ukraine but in neighboring regions dependent on Ukrainian exports. Deforestation for military purposes and the destruction of wetlands can lead to increased soil erosion and exacerbate the effects of climate change, such as flooding and drought.
The war in Ukraine is not an isolated incident. From the use of Agent Orange in Vietnam to the burning oil fields of Kuwait during the Gulf War, history is replete with examples of environmental devastation caused by conflict.
Trophy hunting, the practice of killing animals for their heads, horns, or pelts as displays of dominance, is driven by a sense of conquest and a desire to possess a piece of the wild. This act of domination over another living being disregards the inherent value of wildlife and the complex web of life within ecosystems. Trophy hunters often target large, mature animals – breeding males with the most impressive trophies. This selective removal disrupts population dynamics, skews sex ratios, and weakens the resilience of entire herds. The loss of these alpha males can lead to social unrest within animal groups, hindering reproduction and jeopardizing the long-term survival of the species.
Poaching, fueled by a different kind of hatred – greed – is driven by the desire for financial gain. Poachers target animals for their body parts, such as rhino horns and elephant tusks, feeding a lucrative black market fueled by myths about their supposed medicinal properties. This insatiable demand has pushed iconic species like rhinos and elephants to the brink of extinction. The environmental consequences of poaching extend far beyond the targeted animals. Poachers often employ indiscriminate methods like snares and poison, killing not only their intended targets but also countless other animals caught in the crossfire. This disrupts predator-prey relationships, throws food webs into chaos, and can lead to cascading effects throughout the ecosystem.
The impact of trophy hunting and poaching goes beyond immediate mortality. These activities disrupt the delicate balance of predator and prey populations, leading to imbalances that can have unforeseen consequences. For instance, the depletion of large herbivores by trophy hunters can lead to population explosions of smaller herbivores, causing overgrazing and ecosystem degradation. Additionally, the fear and stress caused by these activities can disrupt animal behaviors, hindering breeding success and hindering migration patterns.
Furthermore, trophy hunting and poaching often occur in protected areas, undermining conservation efforts and jeopardizing the delicate ecosystems these areas are designed to safeguard. Rangers tasked with protecting wildlife face increasing danger from well-armed poachers, further hindering conservation efforts. The financial resources that could be directed towards habitat restoration and anti-poaching patrols are often lost due to the illegal wildlife trade.
While headlines often focus on the blatant assaults on nature – imperialism, warfare, and poaching – a subtler, insidious form of hatred towards the environment lurks beneath the surface. This insidious foe takes the shape of apathy, negligence, and a general lack of concern. Unlike the readily identifiable acts of destruction, these "passive poisons" reside within all of us, contributing to a slow, cumulative degradation of our planet. Their very ordinariness makes them perhaps even more dangerous.
Imagine hatred not as a fiery explosion but as a slow leak. Apathy, negligence, and lack of concern are the drips that erode environmental health. We might not be actively hunting endangered species, but our continued use of single-use plastics, our disinterest in sustainable practices, and our failure to hold corporations accountable – all contribute to the environmental crisis.
The harm of these passive poisons lies in their pervasiveness. Every time we choose convenience over sustainability, we contribute a drop to the overflowing cup of environmental damage. The collective impact of billions of individuals making small, seemingly insignificant choices can be devastating.
Furthermore, apathy towards the environment breeds a culture of inaction. When we fail to engage with environmental issues, we create a space for destructive behavior to flourish. We become bystanders to the degradation of the planet, allowing corporations to exploit resources with minimal resistance.
The quote, "Tolerance and apathy are the last virtues of a dying society," rings true in this context. Apathy disguises itself as tolerance, a passive acceptance of the status quo. When we tolerate unsustainable practices, we become complicit in the destruction of the environment.
Delusion
Finally, delusion in the Buddhist framework is a strong driving force behind the ecological crisis since it is the foundation for the other two unwholesome states. At its core, delusion deceives us into believing that fleeting things – material possessions, social status, or the fleeting validation of social media likes – can bring lasting happiness. This insatiable yearning for external validation fuels a relentless cycle of acquisition and consumption. We hoard possessions, constantly seeking the next shiny object, convinced it will finally satiate our desires. In the digital age, this delusion takes on a new form, with happiness measured by online validation. We curate meticulously crafted online personas, desperately seeking external approval. This insatiable desire for "more" drives unsustainable production and consumption patterns, leaving a trail of ecological destruction in its wake.
On a larger scale, delusion permeates our economic and political systems. We cling to the misguided belief that endless economic expansion and ever-increasing GDP are the hallmarks of a successful society. High levels of production and consumption become synonymous with national progress, while sustainability languishes as an afterthought.[23] As British writer George Monbiot aptly observed, "progress is measured by the speed at which we destroy the conditions that sustain life."[24] This delusion blinds us to the interconnectedness of all things, fostering a system that prioritizes short-term gains over long-term well-being.
The consequences of this delusion are far-reaching and dire. We exploit natural resources at an unsustainable pace, leading to deforestation, water scarcity, and climate change. The delicate balance of ecosystems is disrupted, jeopardizing the very foundation of life on Earth. Engaged Buddhist scholar Sulak Sivaraksa highlights the fallacy of this approach: "Development can emphasize quantity or quality. With the former, we can measure results, but it is presumptuous to assume that more factories, schools, hospitals, food, clothing, jobs, or income will necessarily enhance the quality of life."[25] True progress, Sivaraksa argued, must encompass the well-being of both humanity and the environment.
Delusion and ignorance of the true nature of the ecological crisis undermine the severity of the problem, with some even denying its existence altogether. Despite overwhelming evidence from scientists worldwide, many still remain unaware of the reality of global warming. The geochemist James Lawrence Powell conducted a survey of 13,950 peer-reviewed climate articles published between 1991 and 2012 and found that only 24 papers rejected the reality of global warming (0.17 percent). In a period spanning from November 12, 2012, to December 31, 2013, Powell reviewed 2,258 peer-reviewed articles authored by 9,136 scientists and found only one article that attributed climate change to non-human causes.[26] In a 2021 study of thousands of peer-reviewed scientific papers published since 2012, it was found that over 99 percent of the authors agreed that the cause of climate change is anthropogenic.[27]
The scientific consensus on the human-caused nature of climate change is unequivocal, yet many people remain unaware of this fact. In the United States, where access to information is supposedly unrestricted, a mere 13 percent of respondents correctly identified the scientific consensus on climate change as being over 90 percent in a 2017 survey.[28] The vast majority either believed that there was no scientific consensus or that it was much lower. In 2023, a Pew Research Center survey found that in spite of the urgent appeals from researchers to confront climate change, a significant portion of the American population either does not consider it a significant concern or remains skeptical about its existence. Only 46 percent of Americans interviewed attributed climate change primarily to human activity. In contrast, 26 percent attributed global warming mostly to natural environmental patterns, while an additional 14 percent believed that there was no substantial evidence indicating that warming of the earth was taking place.[29]
The denial of climate change altogether represents a particularly potent form of ignorance. Fueled by misinformation campaigns and political agendas, some individuals and groups actively reject the scientific consensus. This denial can be seen in the tactics employed by climate change deniers, who cherry-pick data, sow doubt about scientific methodologies, and spread conspiracy theories. These efforts create a false sense of uncertainty around the issue, hindering meaningful action.
The consequences of delusion and ignorance are dire. They create a climate of complacency, where individuals and governments fail to take the necessary steps to address the crisis. This can be seen in the continued reliance on fossil fuels, the slow adoption of renewable energy sources, and the inadequate funding for environmental protection initiatives.
In the United States, the fight against climate change is hampered by a significant gap between the scientific community and the general public. While scientists overwhelmingly agree that human activity is causing a dangerous rise in global temperatures, a sizable portion of the population remains unconvinced. This chasm can be attributed to several factors, including a lack of scientific literacy among the public, the influence of misinformation campaigns, and a politicization of the issue. This disconnect between science and public perception hinders efforts to build consensus on climate action, leaving the U.S. lagging behind other developed nations in implementing effective environmental policies.
The exploration of the three poisons – greed, hatred, and delusion – reveals their detrimental impact on efforts to promote environmental flourishing. These three poisons affect human behavior and are manifested at both the micro and macro levels. They intertwine with and reinforce one another in an unceasing chain of negativity. Only when these poisons are eradicated from individuals can there be changes in personal and communal lives.
In conclusion, the exploration of greed, hatred, and delusion uncovers the profound and multifaceted impacts these poisons have on the environment. Greed drives relentless exploitation, leading to deforestation, pollution, and the destruction of ecosystems. Hatred, manifesting in aggressive expansion, warfare, and apathy, exacerbates environmental degradation and disrupts the delicate balance of nature. Delusion fuels unsustainable consumption and economic practices, perpetuating a cycle of environmental harm. Together, these poisons not only threaten the planet's ecological health but also undermine the well-being of countless communities and species. As we can see, these three poisons an antithetical to Buddhist environmental humanism as they prevent human beings from achieving their authentic self. The quest for full self-realization which is the aim for Budddhist environmental humanism requires that we eliminate these poisons from our individual and collective systems. On the other hand, we need to adopt a vision of wholesome and mutually enriching relationship with others and with the natural world. This will be the subject of the next several chapters.
[1] V.IV.205-206.
[2] J.272;
Christopher K. Chapple, “Animals and the Environment in the Buddhist Birth
Stories,” in Buddhism and Ecology, eds. Mary Evelyn Tucker and Duncan
Ryuken Williams (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997), 141-142.
[3] Lewis Lancaster, “Buddhism and Ecology: Collective Cultural
Perceptions,” in Buddhism and Ecology, eds. Mary Evelyn Tucker and Duncan
Ryuken Williams (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997), 11-12.
[4] Johan Elverskog, “Buddhist Contributions to Environmental Ethics:
From Creative Destruction to Creative Protection.” Lecture delivered at
International Conference on Ethics, Climate Change and Energy, Mahidol
University, Salaya, Thailand, November 27, 2014.
[5] DN.III.275.
[6]
Nyanaponika Thera, The Roots of Good and Evil: Buddhist Texts Translated
from the Pāḷi (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 2008), 4.
[7] Vism.XIV.162
[9] Vism XIV, 171.
[10]
Vism.XIV.163
[11] Dp. 251.
[12] Bhikkhu Bodhi, “Message for a Globalized World,” Buddhist Publication Society
Newsletter, nd, http://www.vipassana.com/resources/bodhi/globalized_world.php.
[13] Pragati Sahni, Environmental Ethics in Buddhism: A Virtues
Approach (New York: Routledge, 2007), 165.
[14]
Buddhadasa, “A Notion of Buddhist Ecology,” Thai Buddhism, nd, http://www.thaibuddhism.net/Bud_Ecology.htm.
Buddhadasa Bhikkhu’s ideas come from a number of works that have been compiled
and translated by Grant A. Olson. Olson gives the title of his translation “A
Notion of Buddhist Ecology.” In addition to the negative effect on nature,
Buddhadasa Bhikkhu asserts that internal degeneration hinders spiritual
progress.
[15]
https://ncipl.org/environmental-crisis-not-environmental-spiritual/
[16] Karen Shedlock and Stephanie Feldstein, “At What Cost?:
Unravelling the Harms of the Fast Fashion Industry,” Center for Biological
Diversity, 2023,
https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/programs/population_and_sustainability/pdfs/Unravelling-Harms-of-Fast-Fashion-Full-Report-2023-02.pdf, 5.
[17] Dilys Williams, “Shein: The Unacceptable Face of Throwaway Fast Fashion,” The Guardian, April 10, 2022,
https://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2022/apr/10/shein-the-unacceptable-face-of-throwaway-fast-fashion.
[18] Rashmila Maiti, “Fast Fashion and Its Environmental Impact,” Earth.org, May 21, 2023,
https://earth.org/fast-fashions-detrimental-effect-on-the-environment/#
[19] Thich Nhat Hanh,
“Statement on Climate Change for the United Nations, 2014” Plum Village,
https://plumvillage.org/about/thich-nhat-hanh/letters/thich-nhat-hanhs-statement-on-climate-change-for-unfccc/
[20] Quoted in E.F.
Schumacher, Small Is Beautiful: A Study of Economics as If People
Mattered (London,
UK: Blond & Briggs, 1973).
[21] Allianz, “The Environmental Cost of Corruption,” August 3, 2020,
https://commercial.allianz.com/news-and-insights/expert-risk-articles/esg-risk-briefing-3-2020.html
[22] Carl Henrik Knutsen, Andreas
Kotsadam, Eivind Hammersmark Olsen, and Tore Wig, “Mining and Local Corruption in Africa,” American Journal of Political Science 61, no. 2 (2017): 320–34,
http://www.jstor.org/stable/26384734.
[23] Christopher Ives, “Resources for Buddhist Environmental Ethics,” Journal
of Buddhist Ethics 20 (2013): 546
[24] George Monbiot, "After
This 60-Year Feeding Frenzy, Earth Itself Has Become Disposable,"
The
Guardian, January 4, 2010,
https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2010/jan/04/standard-of-living-spending-consumerism.
[25] Sulak Sivaraksa, The Wisdom of Sustainability: Buddhist
Economics for the 21st Century (Asheville, NC: Koa Books, 2009), 35.
[26] Emily
Gertz, “Infographic: Scientists Who Doubt
Human-Caused Climate Change,” Popular
Science,
January 10, 2014, https://www.popsci.com/article/science/infographic-scientists-who-doubt-human-caused-climate-change.
[27] Mark Lynas, Benjamin Z. Houlton, and Simon Perry, “Greater Than 99%
Consensus on Human-Caused Climate Change in the Peer-Reviewed Scientific
Literature,” Environmental Research Letters 16 (2021): 114005.
[28] ,
“Almost 90% of Americans Don’t Know There’s Scientific Consensus on Global Warming,” Vox, July 6, 2017,
https://www.vox.com/science-and-health/2017/7/6/15924444/global-warming-consensus-survey
[29] Giancarlo Pasquini, Alison Spencer, Alec Tyson, and Cary Funk, “Why Some
Americans Do Not See Urgency on Climate Change,” Pew Research Center,
August 9, 2023,
https://www.pewresearch.org/science/2023/08/09/why-some-americans-do-not-see-urgency-on-climate-change/.
No comments:
Post a Comment